Ko e ngaahi ʻao kasa ʻo e moʻunga afí, ngaahi ʻuʻulu laze, mo e ngaahi pā limnic .¶

Ko e ngaahi sone mo'ungaafi mo e ngaahi sone 'o e mo'ungaafi 'oku nau tukuange mai 'a e ngaahi kasa ta'ehāmai, fakatu'utamaki ki he mo'ui na'a mo e taimi 'oku 'ikai ke hoko ai ha pā 'a e efuefu, lolotonga ia 'oku lava ke fakafokifā 'a e ngaahi vaitupu loloto 'o e mo'ungaafi 'o fulihi pea tukuange mai 'a e ngaahi 'ao faka'auha 'o e kaponi tai'okisaiti ma'a (\(CO_2\)n) 'i ha asrupsa 'oku 'ikai ke fa'a hoko. ‘Oku ‘ikai ke hangē ko e efu ‘o e mo‘unga afí pe kohu ‘o e vela ‘o e vaotaá ‘a ia ‘oku ‘alu hake mā‘olunga ki he langí, ko e ngaahi kasa fakatupu mate taha ‘e tolu ‘o e mo‘unga afí mo e kasa ‘o e kelekelé, kaponi tai‘okisaiti (\(CO_2\)), haitoloseni sālafaiti (\(H_2S\)), mo e sulfur tai‘okisaiti (\(SO_2\)), ‘oku **mahu‘inga ange ia ‘i he sālifa tai‘okisaiti (\(SO_2\)). ki he }2.2\text{ taimi}$ lahi ange 'i he 'ea momoko). ‘I he ‘ikai ke nau ‘alu hake ki ‘olungá, ‘oku lilingi hifo ‘a e ngaahi kasa ko ení ‘i he kelekelé ‘o hangē ha vaitafe vai ta‘ehāmaí, ‘o nau fakatahataha ‘i loto ‘i he ngaahi tele‘á, ngaahi luo mo‘unga afi, ngaahi loki ‘i lalo, ngaahi keli‘anga, ngaahi ‘ana sinoú, mo e ngaahi ‘ana sinoú. ‘I he taimi tatau, ‘i he taimi ‘oku hū ai ‘a e lava ‘o e matātahi ‘oku molten ki he ‘oseni, ‘okú ne fakavela ‘a e vai ‘o e tahí ki ha fo‘i ‘uhiki‘i manu hinehina ‘o e kakapu ‘oku fakatahataha‘i ‘aki ‘a e ‘esiti haitolokololiki (\(HCl\)) mo e ngaahi konga sio‘ata mo‘unga afi si‘isi‘i ‘oku ui ko e laze (lava haze). 'Oku makatu'unga kakato 'a e mo'ui 'i hono 'ilo'i 'o e ngaahi tauhele kasa 'o e kelekele ma'ulalo, kaka vave 'olunga mo e kolosi 'o e matangi, pea mahino 'a e 'uhinga 'oku 'i ai ai ha manava 'e taha 'o e \(10\tohi{ ki he }30\tohi{peseti}\) kaponi tai'okisaiti pe \(1,000\tohi{peseti}\) 'o e cascious sulfide ('ikai ha haitoloseni sulfide).

Fai ʻeni he taimí ni .¶

1. Kaka hangatonu ki 'olunga pea nga'unu kolosi 'a e matangi ('i ha tuliki tikilī 'e 90 ki he matangi) 'i he taimi pe ko ia. 'Oku tafe hifo 'a e ngaahi kasa mo'ungaafi mamafa (\(CO_2\), \(H_2S\), \(SO_2\)) 'o hange ko e vai 'o fou 'i he ngaahi 'aofi, ngaahi 'aofi 'o e vaitafe, mo e ngaahi tele'a, lolotonga ia 'oku teke 'e he matangi disulfurs ($SO plus) 'esiti haikololiki lava hae (laze) 'i he matangi hifo. ʻOua naʻá ke teitei feinga ke ke lele hifo ʻi ha ʻao kasa ʻaki haʻo lele hifo ʻi ha hala ʻi he teleʻá: lele hangatonu hake ʻi he ʻotu moʻunga ofi taha, moʻunga, pe fungavaka ʻi ʻolunga ʻo ha fale ʻi ʻolunga ʻi he laʻi kasa ʻoku fakatahaʻí pea ʻunu fakahangatonu ki he tafaʻaki ʻo e matangí.
2. Sio ki he kelekele ki he "Nature's Gas Detector": manupuna mate, fanga ki'i 'inisēkite mate, fanga monumanu mate, pe ko ha misini 'o e me'alele 'oku fakafokifā 'ene tu'u. Ko e kaponi tai'okisaiti 'oku 'ikai ke 'asi 'aupito pea 'oku 'ikai hano nanamu. Kapau 'oku ke lue pe faka'uli ofi ki ha flank mo'unga afi, mala'e fumarole geothermal, pe vaitupu 'o e luo pea fakafokifā pe 'oku ke sio ki he fanga manupuna mate fo'ou, fanga ki'i mice, fanga poto, pe fanga ki'i 'inisēkite 'oku nau tokoto 'i he kelekele 'o 'ikai ha ngaahi faka'ilonga 'iate kinautolu, pe kapau 'oku fakafokifā 'a e sputters mo e stalls 'a e misini 'o e me'alele vela (koe'uhi ko e $mogen2low because \(13\text{ ki he }15\text{ peseti}\) 'oku fie ma'u ki he vela 'o e misini), kuo ke fakahu ha kato \(CO_2\) fakatupu mate. Taʻofi hoʻo mānavá pea lele hake ʻi he taimi pē ko iá.
3. 'Oua 'aupito na'a ke falala ki ho ihu 'o takatakai 'i he "fua'imoa pala" haitoloseni sulfaide (\(H_2S\)) kasa: olfactory paralysis 'oku hoko 'i he ngaahi sekoni. 'I he ma'ulalo, 'ikai fakatu'utamaki 'a e ngaahi fakakaukau (\(0.01\tohi{ ki he }10\tohi{ppm}\)), 'oku namu malohi 'a e haitoloseni sulfaide hange ko e pala. Ka neongo ia, 'i he taimi 'oku a'u ai 'a e \(H_2S\) ki he ngaahi tu'unga fakatu'utamaki ki he mo'ui (** 'i 'olunga 'i he \(100\tohi{ ki he }150\tohi{ppm}\)**), 'oku ne fakapalalisi 'a e neave olfactory 'i ho ihu 'i loto 'i he 2 ki he 15 sekoni, 'o 'ai 'a e nanamu 'oku mole kakato 'a e ai kuo mate. Kapau ‘okú ke nanamu ki ha fua‘imoa pala mālohi ofi ki ha matavai vela, ipu pelepela, pe fumarole pea ‘oku mole fakafokifā ‘a e nanamu lolotonga ‘oku ngingila ho matá pe ‘okú ke ongo‘i pōlepole, kaka hake ki he matangí ‘i he taimi pē ko iá.
4. Manava 'i ha tupenu 'oku 'i ai 'a e vai pe kofukofu 'oku fakamomoko 'aki 'a e sota ta'o PE ki he ngaahi kasa 'esiti (\(SO_2\) mo e \(HCl\) laze); mahino 'oku 'IKAI ha tupenu pe filter mask 'oku ngaue ki he \(CO_2\). Kapau 'oku ma'u 'i ha 'ao faka'auha 'o e sulfur tai'okisaiti (\(SO_2\)) pe 'o e matātahi 'esiti haitolokololiki laze (\(HCl\)), 'ufi'ufi ho ihu mo e ngutu 'aki ha tupenu 'oku fakamomoko 'i he vai (pe lelei ange, vai fefiofi 'o e **sobacardaon,] ‘a ia ‘okú ne fakasi‘isi‘i ‘a e ngaahi kasa ‘ēsití ‘i he fetu‘utakí) pea mōmoa ho matá ‘i he lahi taha ‘e ala lavá. Kaekehe, manatu'i 'oku 'ikai ha tupenu momoa, N95 mask, pe P100 kemikale cartridge respirator 'e lava ke ne malu'i koe mei he Kaponi Tai'okisaiti (\(CO_2\)) asphyxiation: \(CO_2\) 'oku ne fakafetongi 'a e 'osikena mei he 'ea, ko ia ko e kaka pe ki he 'ea fo'ou 'i 'olunga pe manava 'a e 'osikena 'oku 'i he hina airBA keep/.
5. Evacuate 'a e ngaahi matātahi mo e ngaahi tele'a 'o e vaitupu 'o e mo'unga afi 'i he taimi pe ko ia kapau 'oku pupula 'a e vai 'o e vaitupu, liliu kulokula-lanumata, pe rumbles 'a e vaitupu (Limnic Eruption). Kapau 'oku ke nofo pe fononga ofi ki ha loloto 'o e vaitupu 'o e mo'ungaafi fakatalopiki (maar vaitupu) pea fakatokanga'i ha middle fakafokifā 'a e middle tsunami rumble pe, 'ikai ha matangi, pe ko e liliu 'a e vai 'o e vaitupu 'o 'ao'aofia 'ume'umea-lanumata (tupu mei he vai loloto 'oku koloa'ia 'i he ukamea \(CO_2\)-saturated 'oku hake ki he funga), kuo kamata ha limnic eruption. Ko e toni ‘e laungeau afe ‘o e kasa \(CO_2\) ‘oku mamafa ange ‘i he ‘eá ‘oku teu ke lilingi atu ia ‘i he tafa‘aki ‘o e luó pea lele hifo ‘i he ngaahi tele‘a vaitafe takatakaí ‘i he kilomita ‘e 20 ki he 50 ‘i he houa (maile ‘e 12 ki he 30 ‘i he houa). Kaka hake 'o 'ikai si'i hifo he 50 ki he 100 mita tu'u (fute 'e 165 ki he 330) 'o 'alu hake 'i he ngaahi 'otu 'o e tele'a 'i he taimi pe ko ia.
6. Fakahoko 'a e 'osikena tafe ma'olunga pe CPR 'i he kelekele ma'olunga pea fufulu 'a e mata 'oku vela 'e he 'esiti 'aki 'a e vai ma'a 'i ha miniti 'e 15. Ko e taimi pe kuo a'u malu ai ha taha 'oku 'asi 'i he kasa 'i he kelekele ma'olunga 'oku 'ea ('oua 'aupito na'a ke hu ki he kato kasa ma'ulalo 'e koe 'o 'ikai ha SCBA 'a e 'Iulope a e11). Union, 999 ʻi he Puleʻanga Fakatahatahá, pe vakai ki he kotoa . ngaahi fika fakavavevave). Kapau ‘oku ‘ikai ke nau ‘ilo‘i ha me‘a pea ‘oku ‘ikai ke nau mānava anga-maheni, kamata . CPR 'i he taimi pe ko ia (ngaue'aki ha me'a fakapuli 'i he kato pe ko e ngaahi me'a 'oku fai 'e he nima pe 'a e fatafata kapau na'e huhu 'a e \(H_2S\) pe kasa 'esiti). Kapau 'oku nau 'u'ulu mei he \(SO_2\), vog, pe laze, tokoni'i kinautolu ke nau ngaue'aki 'enau **inhaler 'o e 'albuterol/salbutamol 'oku fakahinohino'i pea fufulu 'a e mata 'oku vela 'aki 'a e vai tafe ma'a 'i ha miniti 'e 15.

Kasa mo'ungaafi, paie, mo e 'akau tu'utu'uni mo'ui 'a e pa 'a e limnic¶

Faka'aonga'i 'a e flowchart triage 'o e mala'e ko 'eni ke 'ilo'i pe ko e fē 'a e fakatu'utamaki 'o e kasa mo'ungaafi 'oku ke fehangahangai mo ia pea fakahoko 'a e maneuver mo'ui pau.

flowchart TD
    Start["Fakatu'utamaki 'a e Kasa 'o e Mo'ungaafi / Mafana 'o e Kelekele / Leiki 'o e Crater:<br/>Mala'e Fumarole, Hu'anga 'o e 'Oseni Lava 'o e 'Otu Motu, pe Leiki 'o e Crater"] --> HazardType{"Ko e hā e faʻahinga ʻātakai kasa pe plume<br/>ʻokú ke ʻi aí?"}

    HazardType -->|"1. Tele'a Ma'ulalo, Fola 'o e Luo, Lalo, Luo Sinou,<br/>pe Leiki 'o e Luo 'oku Liliu Lanu Lanu / Bubbling"| HeavyGas["MAHAMAHALO'I 'OKU 'I AI 'A e CO2 (Pu 'a e Limnic / Mazuku) PE H2S Ma'olunga:<br/>1. 'OUA 'e punou hifo pe hū ki he ngaahi feitu'u ma'ulalo<br/>2. Ta'ofi 'a e manava kapau 'oku sio ki ha fanga manupuna/monumanu 'oku nau 'ohovale pe mate<br/>3. Kaka VAVE 'I 'OLUNGA (>= 30 ki he 100 m fakahangatonu)<br/> ('Oku 'IKAI ta'ofi 'e he ngaahi mask filter & ngaahi tupenu 'oku 'ikai ke ta'ofi 'a e CO2 asphyxiation)"]

    HazardType -->|"2. Masila Faka'auha 'Match Vela' Namu,<br/>Stinging Mata/Kolo, pe Hazy Vog Plume"| SO2Vog["SULIFA TAIOKISAITI (SO2) / KOHU 'O E 'AFI (VOG):<br/>1. Hiki HAKE mo e MATANGI KOLOSI (90 tikili ki he matangi)<br/>2. Manava 'i ha tupenu 'oku 'i ai 'a e vai ('oku lelei taha ke fakamomoko 'i he vai sota ta'o)<br/> pe ngaue'aki 'a e P100 + Acid Kas cartridge respirator<br/>3. Kapau ‘i loto fale: Tāpuni‘i ‘a e ngaahi matapā sio‘ata/matapā kotoa pē, tāmate‘i ‘a e ‘ea fo‘ou ‘o e A/C,<br/> pea ngāue‘aki ‘a e me‘a huhu fakahaofi mafu kapau ‘oku ngingila"]

    HazardType -->|"3. Plume Hinehina Hange ko e Steam 'a ia 'oku Hu ai 'a e Lava Molten<br/>ki he Vai Tahi 'o e 'Oseni"| LazePlume["'LAZE' 'ESITI HAITOKOLOLIKI (Lava Haze + Ngaahi Konga Sio'ata):<br/>1. 'OUA 'E TEITEI tu'u 'i he matangi hifo 'o ha feitu'u hū'anga 'o e lava 'o e 'oseni<br/>2. Nga'unu vave ki 'olunga / KOLOSI 'o 'ikai toe si'i hifo he mita 'e 500+<br/>3. 'OUA 'e milimili 'a e mata (ko e ngaahi konga sio'ata 'o e Pele 'oku nau to'oto'o 'a e ngaahi mata'itofe)<br/>4. Fufulu e mata mo e kili 'aki ha vai ma'a lahi 'i ha miniti 'e 15 ."]

    HeavyGas --> CasualtyCheck{"Kuo tō ha taha ʻi he feituʻu kasa?"}
    SO2Vog --> CasualtyCheck
    LazePlume --> CasualtyCheck

    CasualtyCheck -->|"Lavea 'oku kei 'i loto 'i he luo kasa ma'ulalo/lotomamahi"| WaitSCBA["TU'U: 'OUA 'e hū ki he kato kasa ma'ulalo 'o 'ikai ha tangike 'ea SCBA<br/>(60% 'o e ngaahi mate 'o e kasa fakangatangata-vahe/mo'ungaafi ko e kau fakahaofi 'e hoko)<br/>Ui ki he 911 / 112 / 999 ki he to'o hingoa 'o e Fire Rescue SCBA"]

    CasualtyCheck -->|"Lavea ʻi he kelekele māʻolunga ʻoku ʻea"| FirstAidHigh["1. Sivi ‘a e mānava: Kamata ‘a e CPR kapau ‘oku ‘ikai ke tali pea ‘ikai ke mānava<br/>2. Tuku 'a e lavea 'o e manava ta'e'ilo 'i he Tu'unga Fakaakeake Fakatafa'aki<br/>3. Fufulu e matá ʻaki ha vai maʻamaʻa; 'oatu 'a e faito'o fakalahi ki he SO2/Laze 'a e ma'ama'a<br/>4. Monitor 24 ki he 48 hrs 'i falemahaki ki he Toloi 'o e Edema 'o e Ma'ama'a"]

Fakafehoanaki 'a e ngaahi fakatu'utamaki 'o e kasa 'o e mo'unga afi mo e crater-lake fakatupu mate 'e 5¶

Ko e kasa mo‘unga afi kotoa pē ‘oku ‘i ai hono mamafa molekula, nanamu, mo e founga tāmate‘i kehekehe. Faka'aonga'i 'a e tepile fakakiliniki ko 'eni 'a e USGS mo e IVHHN (Netiueka Fakatu'utamaki ki he Mo'ui Lelei 'a e Mo'ungaafi Fakavaha'apule'anga) ke fakafaikehekehe'i kinautolu.

Deep dive 1: Limnic eruptions (Crater lake overturns) and "Mazuku" death pockets¶

A limnic eruption (also called a lake overturn) is one of the rarest and most terrifying natural disasters on Earth. In 1984 at Lake Monoun (killing 37 people) and on August 21, 1986 at Lake Nyos in Cameroon, a deep volcanic crater lake suddenly erupted without a drop of lava, releasing up to 300,000 to 1.6 million metric tons of pure dissolved carbon dioxide (\(CO_2\)) gas. A silent, invisible cloud of \(CO_2\) 50 meters (165 feet) thick spilled over the crater rim and flowed down the surrounding river valleys at 20 to 50 kilometers per hour (12 to 30 miles per hour), extinguishing every cooking fire, stalling vehicles, and silently suffocating 1,746 people and over 3,500 cattle in their sleep up to 25 kilometers (15 miles) away.

How a limnic eruption works (The "Champagne Bottle" Lake Mechanism)¶

1. Volcanic \(CO_2\) injection at the bottom of a deep, unmixed lake: Magma sitting kilometers beneath an extinct or dormant volcanic crater (maar) continuously leaks carbon dioxide gas up through the lake bed. In most temperate lakes, seasonal winter cooling causes the surface water to sink and mix the lake every year (holomictic lakes), releasing harmless small amounts of gas. However, in deep tropical lakes like Lake Nyos, Lake Monoun (Cameroon), and Lake Kivu ( located on the border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda, holding roughly \(300\text{ cubic kilometers}\) of dissolved \(CO_2\) and \(60\text{ cubic kilometers}\) of methane), the warm top layer of water never cools enough to sink (meromictic stratification).
2. Hydrostatic pressure traps the gas: At a depth of \(200\text{ to }400\text{ meters}\) (\(650\text{ to }1,300\text{ feet}\)), the immense weight of the upper water column (\(20\text{ to }40\text{ atmospheres}\) of pressure) keeps billions of liters of \(CO_2\) dissolved inside the cold bottom water, exactly like the cap on a pressurized bottle of champagne.
3. The Trigger and Runaway Exsolution: When a rockslide/landslide splashes into the lake, an earthquake shakes the basin, a sublacustrine volcanic vent heats the bottom, or a cold heavy rainstorm pushes surface water down, a parcel of deep \(CO_2\)-saturated water is lifted upward into shallower, lower-pressure zones. Instantly, microscopic bubbles of \(CO_2\) fizz out of solution (nucleation). Because gas-filled water is lighter (more buoyant) than liquid water, the fizzing column shoots toward the surface like an elevator, drawing up the entire deep layer of the lake in a runaway chain reaction that blasts a 50-to-100-meter-high fountain of water into the air and unleashes a massive, freezing-cold blanket of heavier-than-air \(CO_2\).

"Mazuku" (Swahili for "Evil Wind") and Dry Volcanic \(CO_2\) Traps Worldwide¶

You do not need a lake to be killed by volcanic \(CO_2\). Around Mount Nyiragongo (DR Congo), Mammoth Mountain (California, USA), Campi Flegrei / Solfatara and Mount Etna (Italy), Laacher See (Germany), Mount Gambier (Australia), Hakoné / Mount Aso (Japan), and Rotorua (New Zealand), invisible cold \(CO_2\) seeps straight out of soil fractures: - In East Africa, locals call these depressions Mazuku ("Evil Winds"): during the day, solar heat and wind disperse the gas, but at night, when the air cools and wind stops, pure \(CO_2\) fills sunken footpaths, caves, trenches, and low huts up to chest height. - In snowy volcanic mountains like Mammoth Mountain in California or Mount Rainier / Mount Hood / Japanese Alps, \(CO_2\) and \(H_2S\) accumulate underneath the winter snowpack and fill tree wells, snow caves, ski patrol huts, and buried cabin basements, suffocating skiers who fall headfirst into a tree well or dig a snow shelter near a fumarole.

Deep dive 2: Coastal "Laze" (Hydrochloric acid lava haze) vs. inland "Vog" (Volcanic smog)¶

Travelers and coastal residents in volcanic islands (such as Hawaii's Kīlauea, Iceland's Reykjanes Peninsula, La Palma in the Canary Islands, Stromboli/Etna in Italy, and Vanuatu/Indonesia) frequently confuse Laze and Vog:

1. How Coastal "Laze" (Lava Haze) Forms and Why It Is Not Steam¶

When incandescent basaltic lava at \(1,150°\text{C}\) (\(2,100°\text{F}\)) pours off a sea cliff into ocean seawater, it does not merely create harmless water steam. The extreme thermal shock triggers rapid chemical reactions (pyrohydrolysis) between molten silicate lava and dissolved magnesium chloride (\(MgCl_2\)) and sodium chloride (\(NaCl\)) sea salts, boiling off a dense, brilliant-white plume of concentrated hydrochloric acid (\(HCl\)) gas and acid rain droplets with a \(\text{pH of }1.5\text{ to }2.0\) (as corrosive as battery acid or pure stomach acid). - At the exact same moment, steam explosions shatter the chilling crust of molten lava into millions of microscopic, needle-sharp volcanic glass shards (including fragile spun-glass threads called Pele's hair and hollow glass flakes called limu o Pele). - Why you must NEVER rub your eyes in a laze plume: If a sea breeze shifts and blows the white laze plume over sightseers or a tour boat, the hydrochloric acid stings the eyes immediately, prompting people to rub their eyes with their hands. Rubbing grinds microscopic volcanic glass needles straight into the cornea, causing severe corneal ulcerations. Instead, flush the eyes continuously with pouring clean water or saline for 15 minutes before touching the eyelids.

2. How Inland "Vog" (Volcanic Smog) Triggers Life-Threatening Asthma Crises¶

Vog forms when sulfur dioxide (\(SO_2\)) gas emitted from a volcanic vent reacts chemically in the atmosphere with oxygen, moisture, and sunlight over hours to days, converting into a hazy aerosol mist of sulfuric acid (\(H_2SO_4\)) droplets and microscopic ammonium sulfate particles (\(PM_{2.5}\), smaller than \(2.5\text{ micrometers}\)). - Because \(PM_{2.5}\) acid sulfate particles are microscopic, they bypass the nose's natural filtration system and penetrate straight into the deepest alveoli and bronchioles of the lungs. - In people with asthma, COPD, chronic bronchitis, heart disease, infants, and pregnant women, even low concentrations of \(SO_2\) (\(0.5\text{ to }5\text{ ppm}\)) and vog trigger immediate, violent reflex bronchoconstriction (airway clamping shut). - Indoor Shelter-in-Place Protocol for Vog / \(SO_2\): If a heavy vog or \(SO_2\) plume blows over your neighborhood and you cannot evacuate crosswind, go indoors, close and tape all windows and doors, set your air conditioner to Recirculate / Indoor Air (closing the outside fresh-air damper), run a HEPA air purifier equipped with an activated carbon / potassium permanganate or baking-soda chemical filter, or hang damp sheets sprayed with a solution of baking soda and water (\(2\text{ tablespoons}\) baking soda per liter of water) in front of a box fan to scrub acid aerosols from the room air.

Concentration-by-concentration physiological thresholds for \(CO_2\), \(H_2S\), and \(SO_2\)¶

Understanding how rapidly symptoms escalate as gas concentrations climb explains why waiting even 60 seconds in a volcanic depression can be fatal (data compiled from NIOSH, OSHA, and USGS Volcano Hazards Program):

Protecting drinking water, livestock, and skin from Hydrogen Fluoride (\(HF\)) and acid rain¶

When an active volcano degasses or erupts fine ash, hydrogen fluoride (\(HF\)) and sulfur dioxide (\(SO_2\)) condense onto falling ash particles and rain droplets: 1. Disconnect Rooftop Rainwater Cisterns Immediately: If your household relies on rooftop rainwater harvesting tanks, disconnect the gutter downspouts from your storage tank before the gas or ash plume arrives. Acid rain and fluoride-coated ash washed off a roof can turn cistern water toxic (causing acute fluoride poisoning, severe vomiting, and hypocalcemic cardiac arrhythmias). 2. Protect Livestock and Pets: Grazing animals (especially sheep, cattle, horses, and goats) ingest toxic doses of fluorine when eating grass dusted with \(HF\)-coated volcanic ash or drinking from shallow puddles, developing fatal acute fluorosis within hours. Bring livestock into covered barns and feed them stored clean hay and covered water.

Ngaahi fehu'i 'oku toutou 'eke .¶

Kuo vakaiʻi ʻa e ngaahi maʻuʻanga fakamatalá¶

• United States Geological Survey (USGS) Volcano Hazards Program: Volcanic Gases and Their Effects (\(CO_2\), \(SO_2\), \(H_2S\), \(HF\), and Coastal Hydrochloric Acid Laze), including Mammoth Mountain Tree-Well/Snow-Pit \(CO_2\) Hazard Advisories and Kīlauea Vog/Laze Protocols.
• International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN), World Health Organization (WHO), and British Geological Survey (BGS): Guidelines on Preparedness Before, During, and After Exposure to Volcanic Gas, Acid Rain, Vog, and Laze.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC / NIOSH, United States) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA, United States): Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) Concentrations and Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards for Carbon Dioxide (\(CO_2\)), Hydrogen Sulfide (\(H_2S\)), Sulfur Dioxide (\(SO_2\)), Hydrogen Chloride (\(HCl\)), and Hydrogen Fluoride (\(HF\)).
• United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and Goma Volcano Observatory (OVG): Mazuku (Dry Carbon Dioxide Pocket) and Lake Kivu / Lake Nyos Limnic Eruption Early Warning and High-Ground Evacuation Standards.

Ngaahi fakahinohino fekau'aki¶

• Volcanoes: ashfall, pyroclastic flows, and lahars
• Kohu 'o e vela vao mo e huhu 'o e efuefu .
• Asthma attack emergency first aid
• Eye injuries and chemical flushing
• CPR: cardiopulmonary resuscitation steps