Nsuo mu Nsuo a Ɛpae, Geyser Basin Crust Breakthrough, ne Nsukyenee a Ɛpae¶

Asase mu hyew afuw ne ogya bepɔw a nsukyenee wɔ so (te sɛ Yellowstone National Park a ɛwɔ United States, Taupo Ogya Bepɔw Beae ne Rotorua a ɛwɔ New Zealand, Iceland ogya bepɔw mu mpaapaemu mmeae, Kamchatka, ne Andes) de nkwa ahobammɔ ho nsɛm abiɛsa a ɛba mpofirim a ɛka bom ba: nsu a ɛyɛ hyew (phreatic) nsuonwini a ɛpae a ɛtow atɛkyɛ ne abotan a ɛrefɔw gu siw mita ɔhaha pii a magma ntumi nkɔ baabiara, sinter a ɛyɛ mmerɛw ne travertine crust breakthroughs mu kɔ 93-degree-Celsius (200-degree-Fahrenheit) atare a acid anaa alkaline a ɛyɛ hyew dodo mu, ne subglacial outburst floods (jokulhlaups) baabi a subglacial geothermal heat anaa ogya bepɔw a ɛpae no ma nsu a ɛwɔ ase no yɛ vast reservoirs a ɛwɔ ase nsukyenee a wɔde akata so kosi sɛ nsukyenee a ɛwɔ abura no mu no bɛpaapae. Afei nso, ɔhyew a ɛba fam ne fumarole tokuru a sukyerɛmma akata so no kyere hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) ne carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) atare a aniwa nhu, a enni huam wɔ dodow a ɛkɔ soro mu a ɛma ahome abien hwe ase. Sɛ tebea a egye ntɛmpɛ si wɔ asase mu hyew anaa nsukyenee a, frɛ wo mpɔtam hɔ nɔma a egye ntɛmpɛ ntɛm ara (911 wɔ United States ne Canada, 112 wɔ Europa Aman Nkabom ne Iceland nyinaa, 111 wɔ New Zealand, 999 wɔ United Kingdom) anaa hwɛ yɛn nhoma a yɛde kyerɛw nsɛm a ɛfa nɔma ahorow a egye ntɛmpɛ. Sɛ wopɛ asase mu asiane ahorow a ɛfa ho a, kenkan yɛn akwankyerɛ ahorow a ɛfa ho nsuyiri a ɛpaee wɔ ɔtare a nsukyenee wom ne abura a entumi nyɛ adwuma yiye a wɔde tu nkurɔfo fi hɔ, . ogya mmepɔw, . limnic a ɛpae ne ogya bepɔw mu carbon dioxide gas mununkum, na ɔhyew a emu yɛ den ne nnuru a wɔde hohoro nipadua no.

Yɛ eyi mprempren¶

1. Tu mmirika kɔ mframa so na kɔ akyi fi geyser anaa ɔhyew ɔtare biara a ɛdan atɛkyɛ mpofirim, ɛyɛ basabasa kɔ soro, anaasɛ efi ase tu abotan asinasin a ɛyɛ tumm. Nea ɛnte sɛ geyser a ɛpae a ɛyɛ nnyigyei a ɛtaa petepete nsu a emu tew ne nsu a ɛyɛ hyew fitaa no, nsu mu hyew a ɛpae ba bere a asase ase nsu a ɛyɛ hyew dodo (175 kosi 250 degrees Celsius [Digrii Fahrenheit 347 kosi 482]) hyerɛn ntɛm ara ma ɛyɛ nsuonwini, na ɛbubu ɔbotan a wɔatoto mu no. Fa mmirika fi ahina no ho fa boardwalk no so bere a worehwɛ soro na woakwati abotan a ɛyɛ den a ɛrehwe ase no, na fa akyi bag a ɛyɛ den, mfoninitwa bag, anaa jacket a wɔabobɔw gu wo ti ne wo kɔn so na woabɔ wo ho ban afi abotan a ɛrehwe ase ne atɛkyɛ osu a ɛrefɔw ho.
2. Mfi nnua a wɔde ayɛ nnua a wɔasisi anaasɛ abotan akwan a wɔahyɛ ato hɔ wɔ asase mu hyew ahina mu da, na nkɔ mu da wɔ ɔkraman anaa ade a wɔatow akyi. Nea ɛte sɛ asase fitaa anaa fitaa a ɛyɛ den wɔ asubura a ɛyɛ hyew nkyɛn no taa yɛ milimita 5 kosi 20 a ɛyɛ teateaa (0.2 kosi 0.8-inch-thin) shelf a brittle siliceous sinter anaa travertine crust a ɛsensɛn ɔbodan a nsu a ɛrefɔw anaa sulphuric acid atɛkyɛ (\(p\text{H } 1.5\text{ kosi }2.5\)) so. Fa akraman to hama tiawa bi a ɛyɛ pintinn so a ɛne mmeae a ɔhyew wɔ; ɛkame ayɛ sɛ biribiara a wɔhyɛ da hyɛn asubura a ɛrefɔw mu a edi awu no ba bere a owura bi huruw kɔ mu kɔgye afieboa a wɔayi no afi mu no.
3. Sɛ asase no mu paapae wɔ wo nan ase anaasɛ wobɔ wo ho ban fa ɔhyew a ɛyɛ tratraa mu a, fa wo yafunu so tratraa ntɛm ara na fa wo nan ase pɛpɛɛpɛ no bobɔw anaa wo yafunu-wea kɔ w’akyi. Sɛ wugyina hɔ gyina hɔ a, ɛma wo nipadua mu duru nyinaa kɔ baabi ketewaa a ɛwɔ mpaboa no nan ase no so. Sɛ wotɔ fam a, ɛma wo mu duru trɛw fa wo honam ani ne wo nan ase bere a wotwe wo nan fi nsu a ɛwɔ ase a ɛrehyew no mu no.
4. Sɛ obi hwe ase wɔ asubura a ɛyɛ hyew a ɛrefɔw mu anaasɛ obubu ɔhyew a ɛwɔ mu mu a, twe no fi mu ntɛm ara, fa nsuonwini a ɛho tew ma ɔhyew no nnwo, na MMFA ntade a wɔde ayɛ a ɛbata ho no mfi hɔ. Fa nsu a ɛyɛ nwini a ɛho tew a ɛsen (mfa nsu a ɛyɛ hyew a ɛwɔ ɔtare mu, a ɛyɛ hyew na nnuru sɛe no da) nwini mmeae a wɔahyew no ntɛm ara, simma 15 kosi 20 bere a woresiw ano systemic hypothermia, twa ntade a ayow a ɛbata honam ani ho, de ntama a ɛho tew a ɛyɛ dry anaa plastic cling film kyekyere nipadua no honam ani ne akwaa ho a ɛnyɛ den, na fa helikopta anaa ambulance so tu kɔ ɔmantam no mu ɔhyew beae.
5. Kura wo home mu na foro foro kɔ mframa mu ntɛm ara sɛ wote nkesua a aporɔw a ɛyera mpofirim hua, wote nka sɛ wo ti ayɛ wo yaw mpofirim, anaasɛ wuhu nnomaa anaa nkoekoemmoa a wɔawuwu wɔ tokuru a asase mu hyew wom mu a. hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) ne carbon dioxide nyinaa (\(\text{CO}_2\)) mu yɛ duru sen mframa ne ɔtare a ɛwɔ fumarole abon mu, asubɔnten mu nsuten, sukyerɛmma abodan, ne ɔhyew a ɛkɔ fam wɔ wim tebea a ɛyɛ komm mu. Bɛboro afã 100 wɔ ɔpepem biara mu no, \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) ma ntini a ɛma hua no yɛ mmerɛw wɔ sikɔne kakraa bi mu ma enti wuntumi nte nkesua hua a aporɔw no hua bio ansa na 500 kosi 1,000 ppm ama ɔhome no agyae "abɔ" ntɛm ara.
6. Gyae nsukyenee a nsukyenee gu asasetaw (sandur), asubɔnten so abɔntenban a ɛba fam, ne nsukyenee abodan mu ntɛm ara sɛ wote sulfur hua wɔ nsukyenee asubɔnten bi ho, te asase wosow a ɛkɔ so ba fam, anaasɛ wuhu nsu fĩ a nsukyenee ayɛ no ma a ɛrehuruw afi nsukyenee hwene mu a. Nsuyiri a ɛpae wɔ nsukyenee ase (jokulhlaup) betumi ama asubɔnten bi mu nsu a ɛtwetwe no akɔ soro denam mpɛn 100 kosi 1,000 wɔ nnɔnhwerew mu, na ɛprapra akwan akɛse so abɔnten so na esie mpoano asasetaw a ɛyɛ tratraa a ne trɛw yɛ akwansin pii wɔ nsu a ɛrebobom, nsukyenee a ne kɛse te sɛ ofie, ne ogya bepɔw mu nsu ase. Fa kar anaa tu mmirika gyina asubɔnten no kwan no so kɔ nkoko atenten a abotan wɔ so no so.

Gyinaesi dua: asase mu hyew a ɛwɔ nsukorabea, crust breakthrough, ne jokulhlaup nkwagye¶

flowchart TD
    Start["Wɔahu Asase mu Ɔhyew anaa Glaciovolcanic Emergency"] --> HazardType{"Asiane pɔtee bɛn na ɛrekɔ so mprempren?"}

    HazardType -->|"1. HYDROTHERMAL STEAM EXPLOSION: Atɛkyɛ Tuntum Plume, Abotan Ballistics, Boom a Ɛyɛ Den"| SteamBlast["PHREATIC EXPLOSION EVACUATION: 1. Tu mmirika kɔ soro na twe wo ho fi mframa a ɛpae no ho wɔ boardwalks a wɔde asi hɔ no so 2. Hwɛ soro na woakwati abotan a ɛrehwe ase a ɛkɔ soro 3. Fa akyi bag anaa atade a emu yɛ duru bɔ wo ti ne wo kɔn ho ban na atɛkyɛ osu a ɛrefɔw 4. Anyɛ yiye koraa no, fa mita 500 (anammɔn 1,650) fi ɔbotan a ɛreyɛ adwuma no ano"]

    HazardType -->|"2. THERMAL CRUST BREAKTHROUGH: Nan Tow Fa Sinter Mu Kɔ Scalding Pool mu"| CrustBreak{"So nea wɔayɛ no bɔne no da so ara wɔ ɔtare no mu anaasɛ ɔwɔ abon no so?"}

    CrustBreak -->|"Wo ho a wubegye: Crust a ɛpaapae wɔ w’ankasa wo mpaboa ase"| BellyCrawl["NKWASƐM A ƐHWƐ NTƐM: 1. MFA anammɔn foforo a ɛteɛ nkɔ w’anim 2. Fa wo yafunu anaa wo nsa ne wo nkotodwe so petee na ama wo mu duru atrɛw 3. Bobɔw anaa wo yafunu-wea kɔ akyi wɔ boardwalk a ɛyɛ den anaa gravel trail so"]

    CrustBreak -->|"Bystander rescue: Wɔde nea wɔayɛ no bɔne no ahyɛ nsu ase anaasɛ wɔahyew no"| BurnCare["THERMAL SCALD & ACID TRIAGE: 1. Fa dua, nkorabata, anaa hama kɔ nea wɔakum no no so fi boardwalk so (mmfa wo nan nsi akutu a ɛyɛ tratraa so da) 2. Fa nsuonwini a ɛho tew a wɔnom anaa asubɔnten mu nsu gugu ɔhyew so (nsu nsu a ɛyɛ hyew da) 3. MMFA ntade a ayɛ hyew a ɛbata honam ani; wrap in clean dry sheet 4. Frɛ 911 / 112 / 111 na woanya mframa-ambulance hyew beae a wofi hɔ ntɛm ara"]

    HazardType -->|"3. TOXIC GEOTHERMAL GAS POCKET: Atirimɔdensɛm, Wim Mmoa a Wɔawuwu, Anaasɛ Wɔhwe ase Mpofirim wɔ Tokuru mu"| GasEscape["H2S & CO2 GAS POCKET ESCAPE: 1. Kura ahome ntɛm ara na foro mita 3 kosi 5 (anammɔn 10 kosi 16) foro kɔ mframa mu 2. MMFA wo ho nkotow anaa nkɔ tokuru anaa sukyerɛmma ɔbodan mu da nkɔtwe obi a onnim hwee a onni SCBA 3. Sɛ wowɔ mframa pa mu pɛ a, fi ase home a wɔde gye nkwa anaasɛ CPR sɛ wɔtwee nea wɔakum no no fi ano a a wɔde hama ayɛ"]

    HazardType -->|"4. SUBGLACIAL OUTBURST (JOKULHLAUP): Sulfur Hua wɔ Glacier Asubɔnten no mu, Wosow, Nsu a Ɛho Fĩ a Ɛrekɔ soro"| Jokulhlaup["JOKULHLAUP FLOODPLAIN EVACUATION: 1. Fi nsukyenee a ɛwɔ nsukyenee abodan nyinaa mu, outwash plains (sandur), ne asubɔnten abɔnten so ntɛm ara 2. Fa kar anaa foro kɔ fam a ɛyɛ den a ɛkorɔn a ɛteɛteɛ bon no so 3. Nnyina da wɔ abotan a ɛba fam anaa akwan a wɔabɔ ho ban so (icebergs batter bridges away) ."]

Abɔde mu nneɛma ne asase ho adesua a ɛfa nsu mu hyew a ɛpae ho¶

Nsrahwɛfo pii a wɔkɔ mmɔnten so atrae ahorow a asase mu hyew yɛ no susuw sɛ ogya bepɔw a ɛpae no ba bere a magma a ayɛ hyew kɔ soro kodu nsu no ani nkutoo. Nokwarem no, hydrothermal (phreatic) explosions taa ba koraa sen ogya bepɔw a ɛpae na ɛhwehwɛ sɛ zero new magma uprising. Nnɛyi nhwɛsoɔ a agye din ne July 2024 Biscuit Basin nsuo a ɛyɛ hyew a ɛpaee wɔ Yellowstone National Park, 1989 Porkchop Geyser a ɛpaee, ne amena akɛseɛ a ɛwɔ hɔ ansa na abakɔsɛm reba te sɛ Mary Bay ne Turbid Lake.

1. Asase ase nhyɛso-cooker afiri (Flash-to-Steam Expansion) .¶

Wɔ geyser ahina bi ase no, asase ase nsu di akɔneaba fa rhyolite anaa basalt abotan a abubu a magmatic ɔhyew fibea a emu dɔ ma ɛyɛ hyew mu. Esiane sɛ wɔde nsu a ɛwɔ asase ase no kura hydrostatic pressure (nsu adum a ɛwɔ n’atifi no mu duru) ne lithostatic pressure (esiane sɛ silica mineral precipitation siw abotan no mu mpaapaemu te sɛ semɛnte) ase nti, asase ase nsu no kɔ so yɛ nsu wɔ ɔhyew a ɛboro so a ɛyɛ 175 kosi 250 degrees Celsius (347 kosi 482 degrees Fahrenheit), a ɛboro ne soro koraa beae a ɛbobɔ. - The decompression trigger: Sɛ asasewosow ketewaa bi si mpɔtam hɔ, ɔtare no ani nsu a ɛkɔ fam mpofirim, geyser nsu ho nhama a ɛwɔ mu no siw, anaasɛ nsu a ɛpaapae saa abotan a wɔde silica akata so no mu paapae a, nhyɛso a ɛwɔ asase ase akorae a ɛyɛ hyew dodo no so no so tew ntɛm ara. - Ntrɛwmu a ɛyɛ 1,600-kɔ-1: Nsu a ɛyɛ nsu a ɛyɛ hyew dodo no hyerɛn kɔ nsuonwini mu wɔ milisekɔn mu. Esiane sɛ nsu a ɛyɛ hyew a ɛwɔ wim nhyɛso mu no gye bɛyɛ nsu a ɛyɛ nsu** mmɔho **1,600 nti, nsu a ɛrehyerɛn no trɛw denam nneɛma a ɛpaapae kɛse a ɛyɛ basabasa so, na ɛbubu sinter abotan a ɛkata so no na ɛtow nsu a ɛrefɔw, atɛkyɛ a ɛyɛ acidic, ne abotan a emu duru yɛ kilogram 500 (nkaribo 1,100) a ɛkɔ soro kodu mita 100 kosi 600 gu (anammɔn 330 kosi 2,000) fa mframa mu wɔ ahoɔhare a ɛyɛ mita 50 kosi 150 wɔ sekan biara mu (akwansin 110 kosi 335 dɔnhwerew biara).

2. Sɛnea wobetumi anya nkwa wɔ nsu mu hyew a ɛpae a ɛyɛ nnam mu wɔ akyirikyiri¶

1. Hu nneɛma a edi kan a ɛyɛ sikɔne 10 kosi 60: Aka kakra ma nsu mu hyew a ɛpae no, asubura a ɛyɛ bruu anaa ahabammono a ɛtaa yɛ pefee betumi ayɛ basaa mpofirim denam atɛkyɛ tuntum anaa fitaa so, nsu dome kɛse bi a ne sorokɔ yɛ mita 2 kosi 5 (anammɔn 6.5 kosi 16.5) betumi ahuru wɔ mframa a wɔde fa mu no atifi, anaasɛ nnua a wɔde ayɛ boardwalk no betumi awosow denneennen wɔ nan ase.
2. Fa mmirika kɔ boardwalk no so; MMHURU mfi boardwalk no so nkɔ ɔhyew a atwa ho ahyia no mu DA: Ehu ma nnipa a wɔretu mmirika afi ɔtopae bi mu no huruw fi nnua a wɔde ayɛ boardwalk no nkyɛnkyɛn, na wɔbɔ tẽẽ fa sinter crust a ɛyɛ tratraa no mu kɔ atare a ɛbɛn hɔ a ne kɛse yɛ digrii Celsius 93 (digrii Fahrenheit 200) mu. Tra nnua mpuran anaa abotan kwan a wɔde asi hɔ no so.
3. Hwɛ wim na kwati abotan a ɛyɛ ballistic: Abotan akɛse a wɔtow gu wɔ digrii 45 kosi 80 no gye sekan 4 kosi 12 ansa na adu wɔn arc no atifi na asan ahwe ase wɔ asase so. Nea ɛnte sɛ asorɔkye a ɛpae no, wotumi de aniwa di abotan a ɛrehwe ase no akyi; ma w’ani nkɔ soro bere a woresan w’akyi no sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wubetumi afi ɔbotan bi kwan so akɔ benkum anaa nifa, na fa akyi bag bi kura w’atifi so na ama woatwe abotan nketenkete ne atɛkyɛ a ɛrefɔw a ɛrepetepete no.

Asase mu hyew ne nsukyenee ogya bepɔw mu asiane ahorow a wɔde toto ho¶

Nkwa a wobenya wɔ ɔhyew mu abon mu nkɔso ne asase mu hyew a ɛyɛ hyew dodo a wɔbɛsa¶

Wɔ Yellowstone, Rotorua, ne Iceland no, nsrahwɛfo pii na wokunkum wɔn anaasɛ wodi dɛm daa denam anammɔn a wɔtu anaa wɔhwe ase wɔ nsuten a ɛrefɔw mu so sen ogya bepɔw mu asiane afoforo nyinaa a wɔaka abom.

1. Nea enti a asase a ɛyɛ hyew yɛ afiri a ahintaw¶

Bere a nsu a ɛyɛ hyew dodo kɔ soro fi mpaapaemu a emu dɔ mu no, ɛma silica (\(\text{SiO}_2\)) anaa calcium carbonate (\(\text{CaCO}_3\)) fi ogya bepɔw mu abotan no mu. Sɛ saa nsu no du ɔtare a ɛwɔ soro a ɛyɛ nwini no mu a, aboɔden abo no tɔ twa asubura no ano hyia, na ɛyɛ siliceous sinter (geyserite) anaa travertine a wɔde ahama ayɛ no tratraa a enyin kɔ abɔnten wɔ nsu a ɛrefɔw no ani te sɛ nsukyenee a ɛyɛ tratraa a ɛwɔ shelf so wɔ ɔtare so. Bere koro no ara mu no, acidic steam a ɛrekɔ soro (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) a ɛyɛ oxidizing ma ɛbɛyɛ \(\text{H}_2\text{SO}_4\)) ma ɔbotan a ɛyɛ den a atwa ho ahyia no yɛ kaolinite dɔte a ɛyɛ mmerɛw na ɛyɛ hwerɛma. Asase a ɛte sɛ ɔbotan fitaa a ayow betumi ayɛ aboɔden abo a ne kɛse yɛ sɛntimita 1 (a ne kɛse yɛ nsateakwaa 0.4) wɔ kuruwa a ne kɛse yɛ digrii Celsius 95 (digrii Fahrenheit 203) so.

2. Anamɔn biara a wɔde hwɛ obi a wɔahyew no ansa na wɔakɔ ayaresabea¶

Sɛ abofra anaa ɔpanyin bi fa ɔhyew a ɛyɛ hyew mu hwe ase anaasɛ kɔ asubura a ɛyɛ hyew mu a: 1. Extricate from solid footing only: Mfi boardwalk no so nkɔ crust ano a ɛyɛ mmerɛw no so da nkɔkyere obi a wɔakum no, anyɛ saa a shelf no bɛhwe ase wɔ mo baanu nyinaa ase. Da fam wɔ nnua a wɔde ayɛ boardwalk no so, trɛw nantew dua, tripod, jacket, anaa abɔso mu, na twe nea wɔayɛ no bɔne no kɔ soro wɔ nnua no so. 2. Fa nsu a ɛho tew a ɛnyɛ hyew ma ɔhyew no nwini ntɛm ara (Gyae ɔhyew no): - Nsu a ɛwɔ asase mu a ɛrenoa a wɔde ahyɛ sɔks a wɔde aboa nhoma ayɛ, mpaboa a wɔde nantew, ne jeans mu no kɔ so noa honam ani ntini a emu dɔ kosi simma 3 bere a wɔatwe nea wɔayɛ no bɔne no afi ɔtare no mu akyi. - Ntɛm ara hwie nsuonwini a ɛho tew a efi nsu nkotoku, hydration packs, anaa nsu pa a ɛnyɛ hyew gu mmeae a wɔahyew no so. Mfa nsuo a wɔde ahyɛ asase mu ɔhyew ɔtare anaa asubɔnten a ɛyɛ hyew a ɛbɛn hɔ, a ebia ɛyɛ hyew, acid, anaasɛ efĩ wom nni dwuma da. - Fa trauma shears anaa kotoku mu sekan twa boot laces ne akyi ntade a ennyaa nwini, nanso MFA ntade anaa sɔks a wɔayɛ a ayɛ mmerɛw na ayɛ afrafra wɔ honam ani akisikuru no mu anaasɛ MMFA ho ntutu DA, efisɛ sɛ wotwe fi hɔ a, ɛma epidermis ne dermis no nyinaa fi hɔ. 3. Balance ɔhyew onwini atia systemic hypothermia: - Sɛ ɔhyew no kata Total Body Surface Area (TBSA) no ɔha biara mu nkyem 15 (te sɛ nan biako anaa nan ase a ɛbɔ faa abon no mu) a, fa nsu a ɛho tew a ɛyɛ nwini ma akwaa no nwini bere nyinaa simma 15 kosi 20 na ama ɔhyew no agyae na ama atɛkyɛ biara a ɛyɛ hyew a ɛyɛ acid no ayɛ nea ɛho nhia. - Sɛ nea wɔayɛ no bɔne no nyaa nipadua nyinaa mu nsuo a wɔde guu nsuo mu kɛseɛ (>TBSA ɔha mu nkyekyɛmu 20 kɔsi 30) a, wɔn honam ani akwansideɛ no sɛe na wɔbɛhwere nipadua no mu hyeɛ titire ntɛmntɛm na wɔakɔ hypovolemic burn shock mu. Hohoro atɛkyɛ a ɛrefɔw na ma honam ani nnwo bere tiaa bi simma 1 kosi 2, afei fa nkratafa a ɛho tew na ɛyɛ nwunu a ɛyɛ nwunu, Mylar space blanket a ɛho tew wɔ ntama a ɛyɛ dry so, anaa plastic kitchen cling wrap a ɛho tew a wɔde ato hɔ tenten (nkyekyere wo honam ani denneennen da te sɛ tourniquet, bere a akwaa a ahyew no ahonhon kɛse wɔ mu no simma kakraa bi). 4. Ma ɔyarefo no nna, ne ho nyɛ hyew, na ɔnyɛ petee, na frɛ helikopta medevac ntɛm ara: Mfa nsu mma no wɔ ano sɛ ɔyarefo no wɔ TBSA hyew >ɔha biara mu nkyem 20, ɔrefe, anaasɛ ebehia sɛ wɔde endotracheal intubation ntɛm ara bere a wadu ayaresabea no a. Sɛ wopɛ ɔhyew ano aduru a ɛkɔ akyiri a, hwɛ ɔhyew a emu yɛ den ne nnuru a wɔde hohoro nipadua no.

Hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) ne carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) mframa afiri a ɛguan¶

Asase mu mframa a wɔde fa mu no kɔ so yi nsuo a ɛyɛ hyew a wɔde carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)), hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)), ne sulphur dioxide (\(\text{SO}_2\)) afra. - Nea enti a mmeae a ɛba fam bɛyɛ mframa dan a edi awu: Wɔ ɔhyew ne nhyɛso a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ mu no, \(\text{CO}_2\) wɔ tumi a ɛtwe ade ba fam pɔtee a ɛyɛ 1.52 na \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) wɔ tumi a ɛtwe ade ba fam pɔtee a ɛyɛ 1.19 sɛ wɔde toto mframa a ɛyɛ daa ho a (1.00). Awia a mframa bɔ kɛse no, basabasayɛ fra mframa yi na ɛma ɛyɛ mmerɛw a asiane biara nni ho. Wɔ anɔpa a ɛhɔ yɛ komm na awɔw wom, bere a wim hyew dannan, anaasɛ wɔ baabi a sukyerɛmma ayɛ mu ma, ɔbodan, anaa asubɔnten a ɛwɔ abura mu mu no, mframa a emu yɛ duru no kɔ fam na ɛyɛ ɔtare a aniwa nhu a ɛyɛ mframa a edi awu a ɛyɛ mmerɛw a emu dɔ yɛ mita 0.5 kosi 2 (anammɔn 1.6 kosi 6.5) wɔ fam. - The Olfactory Paralysis Trap of Hydrogen Sulfide: Sɛ ɛyɛ nketenkete (\(0.01\text{ kosi }5\text{ ppm}\)), \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) hua denneennen te sɛ nkesua a aporɔw. Nanso, sɛ ɛyɛ 100 kosi 150 ppm a, \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) de nnuru ma onipa ntini a ɛma ɔte hua no yɛ mmerɛw wɔ simma 2 kosi 15 mu. Ɔkwantufo bi a ɔnam gas kotoku a wɔahyɛ no ma mu no susuw mpofirim sɛ mframa no mu atew efisɛ nkesua a aporɔw hua no yera; anammɔn abien akyi, wɔ 500 kosi 1,000 ppm no, \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) home biako pɛ na ɛkyekyere mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase wɔ amemene no dua no mu, na ɛma obi nhu hwee ntɛm ara ("akum dan a wɔtow gu") na ɔhome gyae. - Nkwagye ho mmara: Sɛ wuhu sɛ obi a ɔnam kwan so, odwumayɛni, anaa aboa kɛse bi a ɔnom nufusu da hɔ a onnim hwee wɔ asase mu hyew tokuru a akɔ fam, sukyerɛmma abura, anaa abɔde mu nsu a ɛyɛ hyew aguaree amena mu a, MMFA nsunsuansoɔ nsian nkɔ adwenemhaw no mu nkɔhwɛ wɔn koma a ɛbɔ. Kura wo home mu, tena mframa a ɛkɔ soro rim no so, na bɔ mmɔden sɛ wode nkorabata tenten, hiking pole, anaa ahama a wɔde laso ayɛ sɛ wubetumi akɔ so atra mframa pa a ɛbɔ mframa a ɛbɔ no mu koraa a; anyɛ saa a frɛ adwumayɛfo a wɔhwɛ ntɛmpɛ so ma wɔmfa Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) nkwagye. Kenkan yɛn cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, ne mfiridwuma mu mframa a wɔhome ho akwankyerɛ a edi kan.

Nsuyiri a ɛpaee wɔ nsukyenee ase (jokulhlaup) a wonyaa nkwa .¶

Wofii ase fii Iceland asɛmfua a wɔde gyina hɔ ma "nsukyenee ahuruhuruw" mu, jokulhlaup yɛ nsuyiri a ɛyɛ hu a efi nsukyenee anaa nsukyenee ase. Bere a jokulhlaups binom ma nsu kɔ atare a nsukyenee wɔ nkyɛnkyɛn mu nna pii no, nsɛm a ɛyɛ hu sen biara no si wɔ nsukyenee a ogya bepɔw wom mu (te sɛ Vatnajokull ne Myrdalsjokull / Katla wɔ Iceland, Mount Rainier ne Redoubt / Spurr wɔ United States, anaa ogya mmepɔw a nsukyenee ayɛ wɔ Chile ne Alaska) baabi a subglacial geothermal calderas anaa ogya bepɔw a ɛpae wɔ nsukyenee ase no ma nsu a ɛyɛ cubic mita ɔpepem pii wɔ nsukyenee a ɛyɛ mita ɔhaha pii ase.

1. Sɛnea jokulhlaup kyekye na ɛpaapae¶

Bere a asase mu hyew ma nsukyenee bi ase yɛ nwini wɔ asram anaa nnɔnhwerew pii mu no, ɔtare bi a ɛwɔ nsukyenee ase boaboa ano wɔ abotan a ɛwɔ fam anaa nsukyenee toa bi mu. Sɛ saa nsu a wɔakyere no mu dɔ ne nsu mu nhyɛso du bɛyɛ nsukyenee abura a ɛkata so no mu duru ɔha biara mu nkyem 90 (efisɛ nsukyenee mu duru yɛ \(0.917 gram wɔ cubic centimeter biara mu\)$ sɛ wɔde toto nsu a ɛyɛ nsu a ɛyɛ $1.00 gram wɔ cubic centimeter biara mu ho a, nsukyenee atare no sen kɔ soro ankasa, anaasɛ nsu a ɛyɛ hyew ma subglacial no yɛ kɛse tunnels denam frictional melting so. Nsu a ɛyɛ nwini, ogya bepɔw mu nsõ, abotan, ne nsukyenee a emu duru yɛ tɔn 1,000 pae fi nsukyenee no hwene mu fa asasetaw a ɛyɛ tratraa a nsukyenee gu (sandur) no so. Wɔ 1996 Gjallp nsukyenee ase a ɛpaee wɔ Iceland mu no, Skeidararhlaup jokulhlaup no duu nea ɛsen biara a ɛyɛ cubic mita 50,000 wɔ sekan biara mu (cubic feet ɔpepem 1.76 wɔ sekan biara mu), na bere tiaa bi no ɛbɛyɛɛ asubɔnten a ɛto so abien a ɛso sen biara wɔ Asase so na ɛpraa dade akwan akɛse so abɔnten so te sɛ kyɛnsee.

2. Mmara a ɛfa nkwa a wɔde tra ase ntɛm ara wɔ nsukyenee a nsukyenee gu mu nkoko ne nsukyenee abodan mu¶

1. Tie #1 ntɛm afuw kɔkɔbɔ sɛnkyerɛnne, mpofirim hua a ɛyɛ nkesua a aporɔw (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) wɔ nsukyenee asubɔnten bi ho: Subglacial geothermal atare no yɛ ma hydrogen sulfide a wɔapete. Nnɔnhwerew kakraa bi ansa na nsuyiri asorɔkye titiriw no bɛpae afi nsukyenee no awiei no, nsukyenee ase nsu a wɔahyɛ no den fi ase tu kɔ asubɔnten no kwan no mu, na ɛma sulphur anaa nkesua a aporɔw hua a ano yɛ den fi asubɔnten no ano ne abɔnten so. Sɛ wote sulfur hua wɔ baabi a ɛbɛn nsukyenee anaa nsukyenee asubɔnten bi a, fi bon no ase ntɛm ara.
2. Nhyɛn nsukyenee ɔbodan a ɛwɔ nsukyenee ase mu da bere a osutɔ a ɛyɛ hyew, ahohuru bere mu nwini, anaasɛ asasewosow a ɛkɔ soro no: Nsrahwɛfo a wɔkɔsra abɔde mu nsukyenee abodan a ɛyɛ bruu wɔ nsukyenee ase no betumi akɔto simma kakraa bi mu sɛ nsukyenee ase nsu kwan no san kɔ soro anaasɛ ɛbubu nsukyenee no atifi a.
3. Nnyina bridge bi so da wɔ glacial outwash plain so nhwɛ nsuyiri no: Jokulhlaup nyɛ n’ade te sɛ nsu a emu tew; ɛyɛ nsukyenee a ɛyɛ den dodo a ɛde nsukyenee a ne tɛtrɛtɛ yɛ mita 10 kosi 30 (ne tɛtrɛtɛ yɛ anammɔn 33 kosi 100)** a ɛtu kwan kilomita 15 kosi 30 dɔnhwerew biara (akwansin 9 kosi 19 dɔnhwerew biara). Saa nsukyenee mmepɔw yi bɔ abɔnten so hyɛn gyinabea ahorow na ɛboaboa ano wɔ abɔnten so kwan no so kosi sɛ wɔbɛtetew ɔkwan kɛse no so abɔnten so kwan no nyinaa mu. Fa kar fi outwash plain a ɛyɛ tratraa (sandur) no so koraa kɔ nkoko a abotan a ɛyɛ den so ansa na woagyina.

Mpɔtam hɔ ntɛmpɛ nɔma ne adwumakuw no nhyehyɛe ahorow¶

• United States: Frɛ 911 ntɛm ara (anaasɛ fa frankaa to National Park Service Law Enforcement Ranger so sɛ cellular coverage no siw canyon afasuo kwan a; ma SOS satellite messenger yɛ adwuma sɛ wowɔ backcountry a). Hwɛ USGS Yellowstone Ogya Bepɔw Hwɛbea (YVO), Cascade Ogya Bepɔw Hwɛbea (CVO), ne Alaska Ogya Bepɔw Hwɛbea (AVO) (volcanoes.usgs.gov) ma nsu mu hyew ne nsukyenee ogya bepɔw ho kɔkɔbɔ.
• Iceland: Frɛ 112 na woagye ntɛmpɛ ne Iceland Fekuw a Ɛhwɛ Hwehwɛ ne Nkwagye (ICE-SAR / Landsbjorg). Hwɛ Iceland Wim Tebea Ho Dwumadibea (IMO / Vedurstofa Nsupɔw, . vedur.is) ne Ɔmanfoɔ Ahobanbɔ ne Ntɛmntɛm Ho Dwumadie (Almannavarnir / safetravel.is), a ɛpia kɔkɔbɔ a ɛyɛ ahyɛde a wɔde ma wɔ SMS cell-broadcast a wɔde bɛtu nkurɔfo afie ho no kɔ telefon biara a ɛwɔ jokulhlaup anaa ogya bepɔw mu asiane beae (te sɛ Myrdalssandur, Skeidararsandur, anaa Grindavik) mu.
• New Zealand: Frɛ 111 ma Polisifoɔ, Ogya ne Ntɛmntɛm NZ, ne Ambulance. Monitor GeoNet (geonet.org.nz) ne Department of Conservation (DOC) a ɛhwɛ Ogya Bepɔw Ho Kɔkɔbɔ Nneɛma ne nsu mu hyew ho asiane ahorow so wɔ Taupo Ogya Bepɔw Mpɔtam, Rotorua, Tongariro, ne Ruapehu nyinaa (baabi a ERLAWS acoustic lahar/outburst kɔkɔbɔ nhyehyɛe a wɔayɛ no foforo kanyan akwanside apon ne siren a ɛyɛ adwuma ankasa).
• Europa Aman Nkabom, Italy, ne Kamchatka / Asia-Pacific: Frɛ 112 wɔ Europa nyinaa. Wɔ Italy (Campi Flegrei / Solfatara phreatic ne \(\text{CO}_2\) fumarole mfuw), di Protezione Civile ne INGV mmeae a wɔayi afi mu akyi. Wɔ Japan (baabi a ogya bepɔw mu nsuonwini a ɛpae ne \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) gas kotoku a ɛwɔ Mount Ontake, Kusatsu-Shirane, ne Hakone Owakudani yɛ asiane akɛse no) frɛ 119 na di Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) ogya bepɔw ho kɔkɔbɔ ahorow akyi.

Nsɛm a wɔtaa bisa¶

So nsu mu hyew a ɛpae wɔ Yellowstone anaa Rotorua kyerɛ sɛ ogya bepɔw kɛse bi repae?¶

Dabi, sɛnea United States Geological Survey (USGS) ne GNS Science New Zealand kyerɛ no, nsu mu ɔhyew a ɛpae yɛ nsu ho nsu a ɛkɔ soro a ɛnyɛ den a ɛkɔ so wɔ asase no atifi mita 10 kosi 200 (anammɔn 33 kosi 650) a asase ase nsu a ɛyɛ nsu hyerɛn kɔ nsuonwini mu no. Ɛnfa magma a ɛrekɔ soro ho na ɛnyɛ nea edi ogya bepɔw a ɛpae a ɛyɛ magma no anim; nokwarem no, ɛkame ayɛ sɛ afe biara, nsu mu hyew nketenkete a ɛpae sisi wɔ Yellowstone baabi, na amena akɛse bɔ mfe du du kakraa bi kosi mfehaha pii bere a mineral silica siw asase ase geyser akwan no ano no.

Dɛn nti na ɛnsɛ sɛ wotwe ntade a wɔayɛ a wɔde nantew nantew a wɔayɛ no hyew sɛ obi hwe ase wɔ asubura a ɛyɛ hyew a ɛrefɔw mu a?¶

Sɛ obi a ɔnam kwan so a ɔhyɛ ntade a ɛyɛ nylon, polyester, anaa polypropylene hwe ase wɔ asase mu nsu a ɛyɛ digrii Celsius 93 (digrii Fahrenheit 200) mu a, ɔhyew a ɛrefɔw no ma honam ani hwɛbea a ne kɛse yɛ pɛpɛɛpɛ no tetew ntɛm ara bere a ɛma ntama a wɔayɛ no yɛ mmerɛw kɔ honam ani a ɛyɛ akisikuru no mu no. Sɛ wɔtetew trako anaa sɔks a ɛbata ho wɔ boardwalk so a, ɛtetew nkratafa a ɛwɔ honam ani a ɛte ase no mu, ɛma mogya tu kɛse, ɛma ntini a ɛnyɛ den no da mframa mu, na ɛma ɔyare mmoawa ne nsu a wɔhwere no yɛ kɛse kɛse. Mmom no, fa nsuonwini a ɛho tew ma ɔhyew no nnwo ntɛm ara fa ntade no mu pɛɛ, twa ntama a ayɛ mmerɛw nkutoo wɔ anoano no ho, na ma nnuruyɛfo a wɔyɛ oprehyɛn wɔ ɔhyew no mfinimfini no ntwitwa nneɛma a ɛbata ho no wɔ aduru a wɔde kum nipadua no mu a ɛnyɛ ɔyare mmoawa ase.

Ɛbɛyɛ dɛn na asubura a ɛyɛ hyew a ɛrefɔw nso atumi ayɛ acidic a ano yɛ den anaasɛ alkaline a ano yɛ den?¶

Nsu a ɛma asase mu yɛ hyew no gu nnuru ahorow abien a ɛsono emu biara mu a abien no nyinaa sɛe nnipa ntini ntɛmntɛm sen nsu a ɛrefɔw kronkron. Acid-sulfate nsuten (a ɛtaa ba wɔ atɛkyɛ nkuku ne fumarole nkoko so a $p\text{H } 1.2\text{ kosi }3.0$) ba bere a hydrogen sulfide mframa a ɛrekɔ soro no tew wɔ nsu a oxygen wom a emu nnɔ mu na *Sulfolobus* mmoawa de oxidized ma ɛbɛyɛ sulfuric acid a ɛyɛ den, na ɛde acid nnuru hyew a emu yɛ den ka ɔhyew mu hyew ho. Alkaline-chloride nsuten (geysers bruu a emu da hɔ pii a $p\text{H } 8.5\text{ kosi }9.5$) wɔ silica a wɔapete ne sodium carbonate pii; alkalinity a ɛkɔ soro no ma srade a ɛwɔ nnipa nkwammoaa mu no yɛ saponifies (ɛpete), na ɛma ɔhyew a efi ɔhyew mu no kɔ akyiri wɔ honam ani ntini mu.

Sɛ mefa sinter crust a ɛyɛ tratraa mu kɔ me kotodwe mu wɔ akwanhyia mu a, so metumi anya nkwa?¶

Yiw, ɛkame ayɛ sɛ bere nyinaa na wotumi nya nkwa wɔ nan ase apirakuru a ɛpaapae mu no, sɛ wotɔ fam ntɛm ara de trɛw wo mu duru mu, wosan wea kɔ boardwalk no so, de nsuonwini a ɛho tew hohoro nan no simma 15 kosi 20, na wode wo kɔ baabi a ɛhɔ yɛ hyew a. Owu a ɛba wɔ asase mu ɔhyew ahohuru bere mu akwanhyia mu no wɔ abusuabɔ kɛse ne Total Body Surface Area (TBSA) a wɔhyew no ɔha biara mu nkyem 100: mpɛn pii no, mpaapaemu a efi nansoaa kosi kotodwe so no ka TBSA ɔha biara mu nkyem 7 kosi 15, bere a sɛ obi de ne ti hwe ase kɔ ahohuru bere a ɛrefɔw a ɛso yɛ toro mu a, ɛma TBSA hyew ɔha biara mu nkyem 80 kosi 100 a ɛto so abiɛsa a edi awu ntɛmntɛm.

Dɛn ne asiane a ɛwɔ amoeba a wodi amemene mu wɔ abɔde mu nsu a ɛyɛ hyew mu?¶

Nsu pa nsuten a ɛyɛ hyew a ɛwɔ digrii Celsius 25 kosi 46 (digrii Fahrenheit 77 ne 115) fi awosu mu kura *Naegleria fowleri*, amoeba a ɔte ase a ɔpɛ ɔhyew a ɔtra ase nsu mu. Nsu no a wɔnom no mma obi nnya ɔyare mmoawa, na sɛ obi de ne ho hyɛ mu fi ne kɔn so kɔ fam a, asiane biara nni ho; asiane no ba bere a wɔhyɛ asubura mu nsu a ɛyɛ hyew ma ɛforo kɔ hwene mu bere a worekɔ nsu ase, wode wo ti rebɔ, anaasɛ worepetepete no. Amoeba no foro kɔ ntini a ɛma hua no mu kɔ amemene no mu, na ɛde Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) a nnipa dodow a wowuwu boro ɔha biara mu nkyem 97 ba. Ma wo ti ntra nsu so bere nyinaa anaasɛ hyɛ hwene a wɔde kyekyere wo ho denneennen wɔ abɔde mu nsuten a ɛyɛ hyew mu. Mmoa a edi kan adesua a wɔde nsa yɛ fi Red Cross, St John Ambulance, anaa mpɔtam hɔ ɔdemafo bi hɔ a, ɛkyerɛkyerɛ ɔhyew a egye nkwa ne nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia ho hwɛ a egye ntɛmpɛ.

Akwankyerɛ ahorow a ɛfa ho¶

• Nsuyiri a ɛpae nsukyenee ne abura a entumi nyɛ adwuma yiye
• Limnic a ɛpae ne ogya bepɔw mu carbon dioxide gas mununkum
• Ɔhyew a emu yɛ den ne nnuru a wɔde hohoro mmoa a edi kan
• Cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, ne mfiridwuma mu mframa a wɔhome mu mmoa a edi kan

Fibea ne aban akwankyerɛ¶

• United States Asase Ho Nhwehwɛmu (USGS) ne Yellowstone Ogya Bepɔw Ho Nhwehwɛmubea (YVO): Nsuo a Ɛpae wɔ Yellowstone Ɔman Mmoa Yɛmmea: Mfiri a Ɛma Phreatic Flash-to-Steam Decompression, Crater Ballistics, ne Geothermal Gas Asiane Ba.
• United States Ɔman Mmoa Yɛmmea Dwumadibea (NPS): Yellowstone Thermal Basin Ahobammɔ Nhyehyɛe, Sinter Crust Breakthrough Prevention, ne Backcountry Geothermal First Aid.
• Iceland Wim Tebea Ho Dwumadibea (IMO / Vedurstofa Nsupɔw) ne Almannavarnir (Ɔmanfo Ahobammɔ Iceland): Jokulhlaup (Nsuyiri a Ɛpae wɔ Nsukyenee ase) Kɔkɔbɔ Nhyehyɛe a Wɔde Ma Mfiase, Katla ne Grímsvötn Nhyehyɛe a Wɔde Tu Tumi, ne Asase mu Ɔhyew Mpɔtam Ahobammɔ.
• GNS Nyansahu New Zealand (Te Pu Ao) ne Department of Conservation (DOC): Taupo Ogya Bepɔw Beae ne Rotorua Nsuo mu Asiane Ho Nhwehwɛmu ne Mt. Ruapehu Crater Ɔtare a Ɛpae Ho Kɔkɔbɔ Nhyehyɛeɛ.
• Amerika Ɔhyew Fekuw (ABA) ne Wilderness Medical Society (WMS): Ɔhyew ne Nnuru a Ɛma Ɔhyew a Ɛyɛ Den a Wɔde Di Dwuma ansa na Wɔakɔ Ayaresabea wɔ Mmeae a Ɛwɔ Akyirikyiri.