Kuphulika kwa mpweya wa Hydrothermal, Geyser Basin Crust Breakthrough, ndi Glacial Outbursts¶

Minda yotentha ndi madzi oundana (monga Yellowstone National Park ku United States, Taupo Volcanic Zone ndi Rotorua ku New Zealand, madera otsetsereka ndi mapiri a ku Iceland, Kamchatka, ndi Andes) amabweretsa zochitika zitatu zadzidzidzi, zolumikizidwa zachitetezo chamoyo: **mawu ophulika ndi mafunde amadzimadzi) wa mamita popanda kusuntha kwa magma kusanachitike, kuphulika kosalimba kwa sinter ndi travertine kutumphuka kulowa m'madziwe a 93-degree-Celsius (200-degree-Fahrenheit) omwe amatentha kwambiri acidic kapena zamchere, komanso kusefukira kwamadzi (jokulhlaups) komwe kuphulika kwa madzi oundana kumasefukira ndi madzi oundana ndi kutentha kwa madzi oundana kapena kuphulika kwa madzi oundana madzi oundana akuphulika. Kuphatikiza apo, matenthedwe otsika otsika komanso maenje okutidwa ndi chipale chofewa amatchera maiwe osawoneka, opanda fungo komanso okwera kwambiri a hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) ndi carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) yomwe imayambitsa kukomoka pakupuma kuwiri. Ngati mwadzidzidzi pachitika ngozi yotentha yamoto kapena yam'madzi, imbani foni nambala yanu yazadzidzi nthawi yomweyo (911 ku United States ndi Canada, 112 kudutsa European Union ndi Iceland, 111 ku New Zealand, 999 ku United Kingdom) kapena funsani bukhu lathu la manambala angozi. Pazowopsa zokhudzana ndi geological, werengani maupangiri athu Madzi osefukira a madzi a m’nyanja ya glacial komanso kusamuka kwa madamu akulephera, mapiri ophulika, kuphulika kwa limnic ndi mitambo ya carbon dioxide ya volcanic,ndi kuyaka kwambiri ndi kutulutsa mankhwala.

Chitani izi tsopano¶

1. Kuthamanga kwamphepo kotalikirana ndi geyser kapena dziwe lililonse lotentha lomwe limasanduka matope, ming'alu mwachiwawa, kapena kuyamba kutulutsa zidutswa za miyala yakuda. Mosiyana ndi kuphulika kwabwino kwa geyser komwe kumapopera madzi oyera ndi nthunzi yoyera, hydrothermal explosion imachitika pamene madzi apansi panthaka atentha kwambiri (175 mpaka 250 digiri Celsius) kung'anima nthawi yomweyo ku nthunzi, kuswa thanthwe lotsekeka. Pitani kutali ndi beseni lomwe lili m'mbali mwa boardwalk pamene mukuyang'ana m'mwamba kuti mupewe miyala yomwe ikugwa, ndipo ikani chikwama cholimba, thumba la kamera, kapena jekete yopindika pamutu ndi pakhosi panu kuti muteteze ku miyala yomwe ikugwa ndi mvula yamatope yowira.
2. Osatsika misewu yomangidwa ndi matabwa kapena timiyala tomwe taikidwa m'malo otenthedwa ndi kutentha, ndipo musamadziwike mutatsata galu kapena chinthu chogwetsa. Malo omwe amaoneka ngati malo oyera kapena otuwa pafupi ndi kasupe wotentha nthawi zambiri amakhala 5-to-20-millimeter-woonda (0.2-to-0.8-inchi-woonda) shelufu ya sist crust kapena brinter tran brinter wa madzi otentha kapena matope a asidi wa sulfuriki (\(p\text{H } 1.5\mawu{ mpaka }2.5\)). Sungani agalu pa leash yaifupi yokhazikika kutali ndi madera otentha; Pafupifupi imfa iliyonse ikalowa m'kasupe wowira imachitika pamene mwiniwake walumpha kuti apulumutse chiweto chomwe chatulutsidwa.
3. Ngati nthaka yang'ambika pansi pa mapazi anu kapena mugunda pamimba yopyapyala, igwetseni pansi pamimba mwanu nthawi yomweyo ndikugudubuza kapena kukwawa cham'mimba motsatira mapazi anu. Kuima mowongoka kumaika kulemera kwa thupi lanu lonse pamalo aang'ono a chidendene chimodzi. Kutsika pang'onopang'ono kumakulitsa kulemera kwanu pamutu ndi miyendo yanu kwinaku mukukoka miyendo yanu m'madzi otsika otsika.
4. Ngati wina wagwa m’kasupe wotentha kapena wathyoka potentha, mutulutseni nthawi yomweyo, muziziziritsa zopserera ndi madzi ozizira abwino, ndipo OSATIKULE zovala zopangidwa ndi zomatira. Muziziziritsa malo otenthedwawo nthawi yomweyo ndi madzi ozizira, aukhondo oyenda (osati madzi a dziwe, omwe ndi otentha komanso owononga mankhwala) kwa mphindi 15 mpaka 20, kuteteza kutentha kwa thupi kwa mphindi 15 mpaka 20. kulungani thunthu ndi miyendo momasuka m'mapepala oyera owuma kapena filimu yapulasitiki, ndikutuluka kudzera pa helikopita kapena ambulansi kupita kumalo oyaka moto.
5. Gwiritsitsani mpweya wanu ndikukwera mumphepoyo nthawi yomweyo ngati mumva fungo la mazira ovunda omwe amachoka mwadzidzidzi, kumva chizungulire mwadzidzidzi, kapena kuona mbalame zakufa kapena tizilombo takufa mu dzenje la geothermal. Onse hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) ndi carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) ndi mpweya woipa mapanga a chipale chofewa, ndi kutentha kwa kutentha panthawi ya bata. Zoposa magawo 100 pa miliyoni imodzi, \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) imayimitsa minyewa yonunkhiritsa m'masekondi pang'ono kuti musamamvenso fungo la dzira lovunda nthawi isanakwane 500 mpaka 1,000 ppm imayambitsa "kugogoda" kupuma nthawi yomweyo.
6. Siyani zigwa zamadzi oundana (sandur), milatho yotsika ya mitsinje, ndi mapanga oundana nthawi yomweyo ngati mukumva fungo la sulfure m'mphepete mwa mtsinje wa madzi oundana, kumva kugwedezeka kosalekeza kwa nthaka, kapena kuona madzi akuda otsamwitsidwa ndi ayezi akusefukira kuchokera kumphuno ya madzi oundana. Madzi osefukira amadzimadzi amadzimadzi (jokulse) 0000000 mtsinje 00000000000000000000000 gttdt% mtsinje Kuchulukitsa maulendo 1,000 m'maola ochepa*, kusesa milatho ya misewu ikuluikulu ndikukwirira zigwa zafulati za m'mphepete mwa nyanja pamtunda wa makilomita ambiri pansi pa madzi amphamvu, mapiri oundana a nyumba, ndi matope ophulika. Yendetsani kapena thamangani molunjika kumtsinje wamtsinje kupita kumapiri okwera.

Mtengo wachigamulo: beseni la geothermal, kufalikira kwa kutumphuka, ndi kupulumuka kwa jokulhlaup¶

flowchart TD
    Start["Zadzidzidzi za Geothermal kapena Glaciovolcanic Emergency"] --> HazardType{"Ndi ngozi iti yomwe ikuchitika pompano?"}

    HazardType -->|"1. KUPHUMUKA KWA THUPI LA HYDROTHERMAL: Black Mud Plume, Rock Ballistics, Loud Boom"| SteamBlast["KUTULUKA KWA PHREATIC EXPLOSION EXEXION: 1. Thamangani mphepo ndi kutali ndi malo ophulikawo m’makhwalala okhazikika 2. Yang’anani m’mwamba kuti mulondole ndi kuzembetsa miyala yomwe ikugwa mtunda wautali 3. Chishango chotchinga mutu ndi khosi ndi chikwama kapena malaya olemera polimbana ndi mvula yamatope yowira 4. Sunthani mtunda wa 500 m (1,65m) kutali ndi phata la 1,650m"]

    HazardType -->|"2. THERMAL CRUST THROUGH: Kukhomerera Mapazi Kupyolera mu Sinter kulowa mu Pool Pool"| CrustBreak{"Kodi wozunzidwayo akadali m'dziwe kapena pamtambo?"}

    CrustBreak -->|"Kudzipulumutsa: Kung'ambika pansi pa nsapato zako"| BellyCrawl["KUCHOKERA MWAMODZI: 1. OSAYANG'ANIA TSOPANO 2. Igwetseni pansi pamimba kapena m'manja ndi m'mawondo kuti muwonjezere kulemera."]

    CrustBreak -->|"Kupulumutsira anthu: Wodwala wamira m’madzi kapena kupsa"| BurnCare["KUCHULUKA KWA WOCHEDWA NDI ACID: 1. Fikirani wovulalayo pogwiritsa ntchito mlongoti, nthambi, kapena chingwe (osaponda pa kutumphuka kopyapyala) 2. Thirirani moto ndi madzi ozizira ozizira kapena madzi a m’mitsinje (osati madzi otentha) 3. Osamavula zovala zosungunuka zomwe zimamatira pakhungu; kulungani mu pepala louma loyera 4. Imbani 911 / 112 / 111 kuti mutulutse pamalo othamangitsira ambulansi"]

    HazardType -->|"3. POCKET YA GEOTHERMAL YA POTOX: Chizungulire, Zinyama Zakuthengo Zakufa, Kapena Kugwa Mwadzidzidzi mu Hollow"| GasEscape["H2S & CO2 GAS POCKET POCKET KUTHAWIRA: 1. Gwirani mpweya nthawi yomweyo ndikukwera 3 ku 5 m (10 mpaka 16 ft) kukwera ku mphepo 2. MUSAMAGWEBE pansi kapena kulowa m'phanga kapena phanga la chipale chofewa kuti mutulutse munthu wosazindikira popanda SCBA 3. Mukakhala mu mpweya wabwino, yambani kupuma kupuma kapena CPR ngati wovulalayo anakokedwa ndi chingwe kuchokera pamphepete."]

    HazardType -->|"4. SUBGLACIAL OUTBURST (JOKULHLAUP): Sulfure Inunkhiza pa Glacier River, Tremor, Madzi Akuda Okwera"| Jokulhlaup["KUTULUKA KWA JOKULHLAUP FLOODPLAIN: 1. Tulukani m’mapanga onse a madzi oundana a madzi oundana, m’zigwa (sandur), ndi milatho ya mitsinje nthawi yomweyo 2. Yendetsani kapena kukwera pa thanthwe lolimba lomwe lili pafupi ndi chigwa 3. Osayimilira pa timiyala tating’onoting’ono kapena m’mphepete mwa misewu (icebergs akumenya milatho kutali)"]

Fiziki ndi geology ya kuphulika kwa hydrothermal¶

Alendo ambiri opita kumalo osungiramo kutentha kwa dziko lapansi amaganiza kuti kuphulika kwa mapiri kumachitika kokha pamene magma osungunuka akwera pamwamba. Zoona zake, kuphulika kwa hydrothermal (phreatic) kumachitika pafupipafupi kwambiri kuposa kuphulika kwa mapiri ndipo kumafuna **kusauka kwatsopano kwatsopano **. Zitsanzo zamakono zodziwika bwino zikuphatikiza kuphulika kwa hydrothermal kwa July 2024 Biscuit Basin hydrothermal ku Yellowstone National Park, kuphulika kwa Porkchop Geyser mu 1989, ndi ma craters akulu akale monga Mary Bay ndi Turbid Lake.

1. Makina ophikira pansi pansi (Kukulitsa kwa Flash-to-Steam)¶

Pansi pa beseni la geyser, madzi apansi panthaka amazungulira kupyola mwala wosweka wa rhyolite kapena mwala wa basalt wotenthedwa ndi gwero la kutentha kwakukulu. Chifukwa madzi apansi panthaka amakhala olemera kwambiri hydrostatic pressure (kulemera kwa madzi pamwamba pake) ndi lithostatic pressure (chifukwa silika mineral precipitation imasindikiza thanthwe ming'alu ngati simenti), madzi apansi panthaka amakhala amadzimadzi pa kutentha kwakukulu kwa klzzwxh:0013 - **Chopsezo chambiri: Ngati chivomezi chaching'ono chapupi, kutsika kwadzidzidzi pamtunda wa nyanja, kutsekeka kwa madzi a geyser, kapena ming'alu ya miyala yomwe imatsekedwa ndi silika, mphamvu ya pansi pa nthaka yotentha kwambiri ikatsika nthawi yomweyo. - Kukula kwa voliyumu 1,600 mpaka 1:** Madzi amadzimadzi otentha kwambiri amayaka mu nthunzi mu ma milliseconds. Chifukwa nthunzi ya mumlengalenga imatenga pafupifupi ** 1,600 kuchuluka kwa madzi amadzimadzi **, nthunzi yonyezimira imakula ndi chiwawa cha mabba okwera kwambiri, ndikugwedeza chipewa cha sinter rock ndi kuponya madzi otentha, matope a acidic, ndi miyala 500 kilogram (1,100-pound) mpaka mamita 30 mpaka 3000 (mamita 3000) mpaka 30000 mamita. mpweya** pa liwiro la 50 mpaka 150 metres pa sekondi imodzi (110 mpaka 335 mailosi pa ola).

2. Momwe mungapulumukire kuphulika kwamphamvu kwa hydrothermal pafupi¶

1. Zindikirani zoyambira masekondi 10 mpaka 60: Kuphulika kwa hydrothermal kusanachitike, kasupe wowoneka bwino wabuluu kapena wobiriwira amatha kugwa mwadzidzidzi ndi matope akuda kapena otuwa, dome lalikulu lamadzi otalika 2 mpaka 5 metres (mamita 6.5 mpaka 16.5) okwera amatha kutupa pamwamba pa thabwalo, kapena kupindika kwa matabwa.
2. Pitani panjira yopita ku boardwalk; MUSAMALUMPHE kuchoka panjirayo n'kulowa m'matenthedwe ozungulira: Mantha amachititsa anthu kuti adumphe kuchokera m'mbali mwa kanjirako, n'kumakhomerera m'madziwe ozungulira 93 ° Celsius (200-degree-Fahrenheit). Khalani pa matabwa kapena njira ya miyala yokhazikika.
3. Yang'anani kumwamba ndi kuzembera miyala yozungulira: Miyala ikuluikulu yotulutsidwa pakona ya digirii 45 mpaka 80 imatenga masekondi 4 mpaka 12 kuti ifike pachimake cha arc ndikugweranso padziko lapansi. Mosiyana ndi kuphulika kwa mafunde, miyala yogwa imatha kutsatiridwa ndi maso; yang'anani m'mwamba pamene mukubwerera kuti mukhoze kumanzere kapena kumanja kuchokera pamwala, ndipo gwirani chikwama pa cranium yanu kuti mutenge miyala yaing'ono ndi matope otentha.

Kuyerekeza zoopsa za geothermal ndi glaciovolcanic¶

Kupulumuka kuphulika kwa kutentha kwa kutentha ndikuchiza kutentha kwakukulu kwa geothermal¶

Ku Yellowstone, Rotorua, ndi Iceland, alendo ochulukirapo amaphedwa kapena kulumala kotheratu mwa **kuponda kapena kugwa m'masupe otentha ** kuposa zoopsa zina zonse za mapiri ophulika.

1. Chifukwa chiyani nthaka ya geothermal ndi msampha wobisika¶

Madzi otenthedwa kwambiri akamatuluka m'ming'anjo yakuya, amasungunula silika (\(\text{SiO}_2\)) kapena calcium carbonate (\(\text{CaCO}_3\)) kuchokera m'thanthwe lamapiri. Madziwo akafika padziwe lozizirirapo, mcherewo umalowa m'mphepete mwa kasupe, ndikumanga timiyala ta siliceous sinter (geyserite) kapena travertine yomwe imamera panja pamwamba pa madzi otentha ngati ayezi woonda kwambiri padziwe. Nthawi yomweyo, nthunzi ya acidic yokwera (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)oxidizing into \(\text{H}_2\text{SO}_4\)) imalowetsa mwala wolimba kukhala dongo lofewa, loterera la kaolinite. Chigawo cha nthaka chomwe chimawoneka ngati mwala wouma wouma chikhoza kukhala chigoba cha mchere cha masentimita 1 (0.4-inch-thick) pamwamba pa 95-degree-Celsius (203-degree-Fahrenheit) cauldron.

2. Pang'onopang'ono prehospital kuwotcha chisamaliro cha otentha kasupe wovulalayo¶

Ngati mwana kapena wamkulu agwa kudzera mumtambo wotentha kapena kasupe wotentha: 1. Chokani pamapazi olimba okha: Osatsika panjira kupita pamphepete mwa kutumphuka kuti mugwire wovulalayo, kapena shelefu igwera pansi nonse. Gonani chathyathyathya pamsinjiro wamatabwa, onjezerani mtengo wokwererapo, katatu, jekete, kapena lamba, ndi kukokera wovulalayo pamatabwa. 2. Ziziziritsani poyaka moto nthawi yomweyo ndi madzi oyera, osatenthedwa (Imitsani kuyatsa): - Madzi otentha otentha otsekeredwa m'masokisi aubweya, nsapato zoyenda pansi, ndi ma jeans akupitiliza kuphika minofu yakuya mpaka mphindi zitatu wovulalayo atamutulutsa m'dziwe. - Thirani nthawi yomweyo **madzi ozizira ozizira kuchokera m'mabotolo amadzi, mapaketi a hydration, kapena mtsinje wamadzi opanda kutentha ** pamwamba pa malo omwe apsa. Musagwiritse ntchito madzi oviikidwa kuchokera kudziwe lapafupi ndi geothermal kapena mtsinje wofunda, omwe angakhale otentha, acidic, kapena oipitsidwa. - Dulani zingwe za nsapato ndi zovala zakunja zosasungunuka zokhala ndi zosenga zowopsa kapena mpeni wa mthumba, koma MUSAMAGULIRE kapena kuvula zovala zopangidwa kapena masokosi omwe asungunuka ndikuphatikizana ndi khungu lophulika , monga kuwakoka kumachotsa epidermis ndi dermis kutali. 3. Kutentha kozizira kozizira motsutsana ndi systemic hypothermia: - Ngati kutentha kumakwirira ** zosakwana 15 peresenti ya Total Body Surface Area (TBSA) (monga phazi limodzi kapena mwendo wapansi womwe udaboola pakati pa kutumphuka), kuziziritsa mwendo mosalekeza ndi madzi ozizira oyera kwa 15 kwa mphindi 20 kuti aletse kutupa ndikuchepetsa matope aliwonse otentha. - Ngati wozunzidwayo adamizidwa ndi thupi lonse (> 20 mpaka 30 peresenti ya TBSA), chotchinga pakhungu chawo chimawonongeka ndipo amataya kutentha kwambiri kwa thupi ndikuyamba kupsa mtima kwambiri. Chotsani matope otentha ndikuziziritsa khungu mwachidule kwa 1 mpaka mphindi 2, kenaka kulungani wovulalayo momasuka mu **mapepala oyera, owuma, bulangeti loyera la Mylar pansalu yowuma, kapena zokutira za pulasitiki za pulasitiki zomwe zimayikidwa motalika ** (osakulungidwa mwamphamvu mozungulira chiwalo ngati chiwombankhanga, komanso kuwotchedwa). 4. **Pezani wodwalayo kukhala maso, kutentha, ndi kuphwatalala, ndikuyitanitsa helicopter medevac yomweyo: ** Musapereke madzi pakamwa ngati wodwalayo ali ndi> 20 peresenti ya TBSA yoyaka, kusanza, kapena adzafunika kutuluka mwadzidzidzi kwadzidzidzi akafika kuchipatala. Kuti mudziwe zambiri zowotcha, onani kuyaka kwambiri ndi kutulutsa mankhwala.

Kuthawa hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) ndi carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) misampha ya mpweya¶

Mpweya wotenthetsera mpweya umatuluka mosalekeza nthunzi wosakanikirana ndi carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)), hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)), ndi sulfur dioxide (\(\text{SO}_2\)). - Zifukwa zomwe malo otsika amakhala zipinda za mpweya wakupha: Pa kutentha ndi kupanikizika, \(\text{CO}_2\) imakhala ndi mphamvu yokoka ya 1.52 ndipo \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) ili ndi mphamvu yokoka yeniyeni ya 1.19 poyerekeza ndi mpweya wabwinobwino (1.00). Madzulo a mphepo, chipwirikiti chimasakaniza ndi kusungunula mpweya umenewu mopanda vuto. M'mawa ** bata, ozizira, kutentha kwa mumlengalenga, kapena mkati mwa chipale chofewa, mphanga, kapena mtsinje**, mpweya wolemera umamira ndikupanga nyanja yosaoneka, yosasunthika ya mpweya wakupha wa 0.5 mpaka 2 metres (1.6 mpaka 6.5 mapazi) pansi pansi. - The Olfactory Paralysis Trap of Hydrogen Sulfide: Pang'ono pang'ono (\(0.01\text{ mpaka }5\text{ppm}\)), \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) imanunkhiza kwambiri ngati mazira owola. Komabe, pakachulukidwe ka 100 mpaka 150 ppm, \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) imapumitsa mtsempha wa munthu mkati mwa mphindi 2 mpaka 15. Woyenda akuyenda m'thumba la mpweya wokhazikika mwadzidzidzi akuganiza kuti mpweya wapita chifukwa fungo la dzira lowola likutha; masitepe awiri pambuyo pake, pa 500 mpaka 1,000 ppm, mpweya umodzi wa \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) umamangiriza ku mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase mu tsinde la ubongo, kuchititsa chikomokere nthawi yomweyo ("nyumba yophera anthu") komanso kupuma. - Lamulo lopulumutsa: Mukawona munthu woyenda m'miyendo, wogwira ntchito, kapena choyamwitsa chachikulu chagona chikomokere m'dzenje lazambiri, moat ya chipale chofewa, kapena dzenje lachilengedwe losambira lamadzi otentha, **MUSAMAyende pansi kuti muwone ngati akugunda. kukhala kwathunthu mu mpweya watsopano wa mphepo; kapena itanani chithandizo chadzidzidzi kuti mupulumutse Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA). Werengani wathu cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, ndi chiwongolero chothandizira choyamba chothandizira gasi.

Kupulumuka kusefukira kwamadzi (jokulhlaup)¶

Ochokera ku mawu achi Icelandic akuti "glacier leap," ** jokulhlaup ** ndi chigumula choopsa chomwe chimatulutsidwa pansi pa madzi oundana kapena madzi oundana. Ngakhale ma jokulhlaups ena amakhetsa nyanja zam'mphepete mwa madzi oundana kwa masiku ambiri, zochitika zowopsa kwambiri zimachitika m'malo oundana ophulika (monga Vatnajokull ndi Myrdalsjokull / Katla ku Iceland, Mount Rainier ndi Redoubt / Spurr ku United States, kapena glacicial glaciated Alaska) calderas kapena kuphulika kwa mapiri a subglacial amasungunula mamiliyoni a cubic metres a madzi pansi pa mazana a mamita a ayezi.

1. Momwe jokulhlaup imamangira ndikusweka¶

Kutentha kwa geothermal kumasungunula pansi pa madzi oundana pakatha miyezi kapena maola, nyanja yamchere imawunjikana mkati mwa thanthwe kapena mbiya. Kuzama ndi mphamvu ya hydrostatic ya madzi otsekeredwawo ikafika pafupifupi 90 peresenti ya makulidwe a damu oundana (chifukwa ayezi amakhala ndi kuchuluka kwa $0.917 magalamu pa kiyubiki centimita imodzi $ kuyerekeza ndi $1.00 magalamu amadzi amadzi pa kiyubiki centimita imodzi $), dziwe la ayezi limayandama mmwamba kudzera m'madzi osungunuka, kapena madzi ofunda amayandama. Madzi oundana, phulusa lachiphalaphala, miyala, ndi madzi oundana okwana matani 1,000 a madzi oundana amaphulika kuchokera mumphuno ya madzi oundana kudutsa chigwa chathyathyathya (sandur). Mu 1996 kuphulika kwa madzi a Gjallp ku Iceland, Skeidararhlaup jokulhlaup inafika pachimake cha 50,000 cubic metres pa sekondi imodzi (1.76 miliyoni cubic feet pa sekondi iliyonse), mwachidule kukhala mtsinje wachiwiri waukulu kwambiri padziko lonse lapansi ndikuseseratu milatho yazitsulo.

2. Malamulo opulumuka nthawi yomweyo m'zigwa za madzi oundana ndi mapanga oundana¶

1. Mverani chenjezo loyambirira #1, fungo ladzidzidzi la mazira ovunda (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) m'mphepete mwa mtsinje wa glacial: Nyanja za pansi pa madzi otentha zadzaza ndi hydrogen sulfide yosungunuka. Patatsala maola ochepa kuti madzi osefukira ayambe kuphulika kuchokera kumalo otsetsereka a madzi oundana, madzi apansi pamadzi opanikizika amayamba kuyenderera mumtsinje, kutulutsa fungo loipa la sulfure kapena dzira lovunda m'mphepete mwa mitsinje ndi milatho. Ngati mukumva fungo la sulfure pafupi ndi madzi oundana kapena mtsinje wa glacial, chokani pansi pa chigwacho nthawi yomweyo.
2. Musalowe m'phanga la madzi oundana m'kati mwa mvula yotentha, kutentha kwa masika, kapena zivomezi zazikulu: Alendo oyendera mapanga oundana a madzi oundana m'munsi mwa madzi oundana akhoza kutsekeredwa m'mphindi zochepa ngati ngalande zamadzi zocheperako zibwerera kapena kugwetsa denga la ayezi.
3. Musayime pa mlatho pamwamba pa madzi oundana kuti muwone kusefukira kwa madzi: Jokulhlaup samachita ngati madzi oyera; ndi hyperconcentrated slurry yomwe imanyamula **10-to-30-mita-wide (33-to-100-foot-wide) icebergs ** yoyenda makilomita 15 mpaka 30 pa ola (9 mpaka 19 mailosi pa ola). Ma icebergs awa amagunda pazipinda za mlatho ndikuwunjikana molunjika mpaka mlatho wonse wa msewu waukulu utang'ambika. Yendetsani kuchoka pa chigwa chathyathyathya (sandur) kupita kumapiri olimba musanayime.

Nambala zangozi zachigawo ndi ndondomeko za bungwe¶

• United States: Imbani 911 nthawi yomweyo (kapena tsitsani National Park Service Law Enforcement Ranger ngati ma cellular atsekedwa ndi makoma a canyon; yambitsani messenger ya SOS ngati ili kumbuyo). Yang'anirani USGS Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO), Cascade Volcano Observatory (CVO), ndi Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) (volcanoes.usgs.gov) zochenjeza za hydrothermal ndi glaciovolcanic.
• Iceland: Imbani 112 kuti mupulumutsidwe mwadzidzidzi ndi Icelandic Association for Search and Rescue (ICE-SAR / Landsbjorg). Yang'anirani Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO / Vedurstofa Islands, vedur.is) ndi Dipatimenti ya Civil Protection ndi Emergency Management (Almannavarnir / safetravel.is), zomwe zimakankhira machenjezo ovomerezeka a SMS kuti achoke ku foni iliyonse yomwe ili mkati mwa jokulhlaup kapena zone yoopsa ya mapiri (monga Myrdalssandur, Skeidararsandur, kapena Grindavik).
• New Zealand: Imbani 111 kwa Apolisi, Moto ndi Zadzidzidzi NZ, ndi Ambulansi. Monitor GeoNet (geonet.org.nz) ndi Department of Conservation (DOC) for Volcanic Alert Levels and hydrothermal risk kudutsa Taupo Volcanic Zone, Rotorua, Tongariro, and Ruapehu (komwe makina opangidwa ndi ERLAWS acoustic lahar/kuphulika kwa chenjezo amayambitsa zipata zotchinga ndi siren).
• European Union, Italy, and Kamchatka / Asia-Pacific: Imbani 112 ku Europe konse. Ku Italy (Campi Flegrei / Solfatara phreatic ndi \(\text{CO}_2\) fumarole fields), tsatirani Protezione Civile ndi INGV madera opatula. Ku Japan (komwe kuphulika kwa nthunzi ya chiphala chamoto ndi \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) matumba a gasi ku Mount Ontake, Kusatsu-Shirane, ndi Hakone Owakudani ndi zoopsa zazikulu), imbani 119 ndikutsatira Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) machenjezo a chiphalaphala.

Mafunso omwe amafunsidwa pafupipafupi¶

Kodi kuphulika kwa hydrothermal ku Yellowstone kapena Rotorua kukutanthauza kuti kuphulika kwamphamvu kwamphamvu kwayamba?¶

Ayi. Malinga ndi a United States Geological Survey (USGS) ndi GNS Science New Zealand, kuphulika kwa hydrothermal ndi zochitika zosazama zapamadzi zomwe zimachitika pamwamba pa 10 mpaka 200 mamita (33 mpaka 650 mapazi) a kutumphuka kumene madzi apansi apansi amagwera mu nthunzi. Siziphatikiza magma okwera ndipo sizimatsogolera kuphulika kwa chiphala champhamvu; M'malo mwake, kuphulika kwakung'ono kwa hydrothermal kumachitika kwinakwake ku Yellowstone pafupifupi chaka chilichonse, ndipo ziboliboli zazikulu zimaphulika pakadutsa zaka makumi angapo mpaka zaka mazana ambiri pomwe silika wamchere amatseka ngalande za geyser.

N’chifukwa chiyani simuyenera kuvula zovala zomakwera zosungunuka ngati wina agwera m’kasupe wotentha kwambiri?¶

Munthu woyenda wovala nayiloni, poliyesitala, kapena zovala za polypropylene agwera m'madzi a kutentha kwa 93-degree-Fahrenheit (200-degree-Fahrenheit), kutentha kowirako kumapangitsa kuti khungu likhale lokhuthala nthawi yomweyo ndikufewetsa nsalu yopangira mu dermis yophulika. Kuvula thalauza kapena masokosi pa boardwalk kung'amba masamba omwe ali pansi pa dermis, kumayambitsa magazi ambiri, kumapangitsa minyewa kupita mumlengalenga, ndipo kumawonjezera matenda ndi kutaya madzimadzi. M'malo mwake, muziziziritsa chowotchacho nthawi yomweyo ndi madzi ozizira oyera, chotsani nsalu yotchinga m'mphepete mwake, ndikusiya maopaleshoni apakati awononge zida zomatira pansi pa anesthesia wosabala.

Kodi kasupe wowira atha bwanji kukhala acidic kwambiri kapena wamchere kwambiri?¶

Madzi a munthaka amagwera m'magulu awiri osiyana a mankhwala omwe amawononga minofu ya munthu mwachangu kuposa madzi otentha otentha. Akasupe a Acid-sulfate (omwe amapezeka m'miphika yamatope ndi mapiri a fumarole okhala ndi $p\text{H } 1.2\text{mpaka}3.0$) amapangika pamene mpweya wa hydrogen sulfide umakwera umasungunuka m'madzi osaya ndi okosijeni ndipo amathiridwa ndi mabakiteriya a *Sulfolobus* kukhala sulfuric acid yochuluka, kuonjezera kutentha kwambiri kwa sulfuric acid. Akasupe a alkaline-chloride (mageya ambiri a buluu omveka bwino okhala ndi $p\text{H } 8.5\text{mpaka }9.5$) ali ndi silika wosungunuka ndi sodium carbonate; high alkalinity saponify (kusungunula) mafuta lipids mu nembanemba maselo aumunthu, kulola kutentha matenthedwe kulowa mozama mu subcutaneous minofu.

Kodi ndingathe kukhala ndi moyo ngati nditadutsa mwangozi kutsetsereka kwa sinter mpaka bondo langa?¶

Inde, kuvulala kwapang'onopang'ono m'miyendo kungathe kupulumuka ngati mutangotsika pansi kuti mufalitse kulemera kwanu, kukwawa kubwerera ku boardwalk, kutsuka mwendo wanu ndi madzi ozizira kwa mphindi 15 mpaka 20, ndikupita kumalo oyaka. Kufa kwa ngozi za m'nyengo ya kutentha kwa kutentha kumayenderana kwambiri ndi chiwerengero cha Total Body Surface Area (TBSA) yowotchedwa: kuphulika kwa bondo ndi bondo nthawi zambiri kumakhudza 7 mpaka 15 peresenti ya TBSA, pamene kutsetsereka koyambirira m'kasupe wowira kumayambitsa 80 mpaka 100 peresenti ya TBSA yomwe imakhala yachitatu mofulumira.

Kodi chiwopsezo cha amoeba chodya ubongo m'akasupe achilengedwe otentha ndi chiyani?¶

Akasupe amadzi ofunda ofunda apakati pa 25 ndi 46 digiri Celsius (77 ndi 115 digiri Seshasi) mwachilengedwe amakhala ndi *Naegleria fowleri*, amoeba wopanda mphamvu ya thermophilic yemwe amakhala pansi pamatope. Kumwa madzi sikumayambitsa matenda, ndipo kunyowa kuchokera m'khosi mpaka pansi kumakhala kotetezeka; ngoziyi imachitika pamene madzi otentha akasupe akakamizika m'mipata ya m'mphuno podumphira, kudumphira mutu, kapena kuwaza. Amoeba imayenda m'mitsempha yonunkhiritsa kulowa muubongo, kuchititsa Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM), yomwe imafa kwambiri kuposa 97 peresenti. Nthawi zonse sungani mutu wanu pamwamba pa madzi kapena valani mphuno yothina mu akasupe achilengedwe ofunda. Kutenga manja pa chithandizo choyamba kuchokera ku Red Cross, St John Ambulance, kapena wothandizira wamba amaphunzitsa kutentha kopulumutsa moyo ndi chisamaliro chadzidzidzi zachilengedwe.

Maupangiri ogwirizana¶

• Madzi osefukira a Glacial Lake adasefukira komanso kusamutsa madamu akulephera
• Kuphulika kwa Limnic ndi mitambo ya carbon dioxide ya volcanic
• Kuwotcha kwambiri ndi kutulutsa mankhwala thandizo loyamba
• Cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, ndi gasi wamakampani pokoka mpweya wothandizira woyamba

Magwero ndi malangizo ovomerezeka¶

• United States Geological Survey (USGS) ndi Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO): Hydrothermal Explosions in Yellowstone National Park: Mechanics of Phreatic Flash-to-Steam Decompression, Crater Ballistics, and Geothermal Gas Hazards.
• United States National Park Service (NPS): Yellowstone Thermal Basin Safety Protocols, Sinter Crust Breakthrough Prevention, ndi Backcountry Geothermal First Aid.
• Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO / Vedurstofa Islands) ndi Almannavarnir (Civil Protection Iceland): Jokulhlaup (Subglacial Outburst Flood) Early Warning Systems, Katla and Grímsvötn Evacuation Plans, and Geothermal Area Safety.
• GNS Science New Zealand (Te Pu Ao) ndi Department of Conservation (DOC): Taupo Volcanic Zone and Rotorua Hydrothermal Hazard Assessments and Mt. Ruapehu Crater Lake Outburst Warning Protocols.
• American Burn Association (ABA) ndi Wilderness Medical Society (WMS): Prehospital Management of Severe Thermal and Chemical Scald Burns Kumalo Akutali.