I-Hydrothermal Steam Explosions, i-Geyser Basin Crust Breakthrough, kanye ne-Glacial Outbursts¶

Izinkambu ze-Geothermal kanye nezindawo zentaba-mlilo eziwuqhwa (njenge-Yellowstone National Park e-United States, i-Taupo Volcanic Zone kanye ne-Rotorua e-New Zealand, izindawo ezinezintaba-mlilo zase-Iceland, i-Kamchatka, kanye ne-Andes) ziletha izimo eziphuthumayo ezintathu ezizumayo, ezixhumene zokuphepha zokuphila: izimo eziphuthumayo eziqhuma amadwala nokuqhuma kwe-rothermal amamitha ngaphandle kokunyakaza kwangaphambili kwe-magma, i-sinter entekenteke ne-travertine crust ehamba phambili ibe ngu-93-degree-Celsius (200-degree-Fahrenheit) emachibini ane-asidi eshisa kakhulu noma ane-alkaline, kanye nezikhukhula eziqhuma ngaphansi kweqhwa (jokulhlaups) lapho ukuqhuma okungaphansi kweqhwa kuze kufike ukufudumala kwamanzi angaphansi kweqhwa noma intaba-mlilo ikhukhula idamu leqhwa liyaqhuma. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izimbobo ezishisayo eziphansi kanye nemigodi ye-fumarole embozwe yiqhwa ibamba amachibi edosi engabonakali, engenaphunga-at-high of hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) kanye ne-carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) abangela ukugoqeka ekuphefumuleni okubili. Uma kuvela isimo esiphuthumayo endaweni eshisayo noma e-glacial, shayela inombolo yakho yasendaweni yezimo eziphuthumayo ngokushesha (911 e-United States nase-Canada, 112 ngaphesheya kwe-European Union nase-Iceland, 111 e-New Zealand, 999 e-United Kingdom) noma uthintane nencwadi yethu izinombolo eziphuthumayo. Ukuze uthole izingozi ezihlobene ne-geological, funda imihlahlandlela yethu ku i-glacial lake liqhume izikhukhula kanye nokuphuma kokungasebenzi kwamadamu, izintaba-mlilo, ukuqhuma kwe-limnic kanye namafu egesi ye-volcanic carbon dioxide, futhi ukusha okukhulu nokushiswa kwamakhemikhali.

Yenza lokhu manje¶

1. Balekela phezulu bese uhambela eceleni kunoma iyiphi i-geyser noma ichibi elishisayo elijika libe nodaka, liphakame ngamandla, noma liqale likhiphe izingcezu zamadwala amnyama. Ngokungafani nokuqhuma okujwayelekile kwesigqi esinesigqi esifutha amanzi acwebile nesitimu esimhlophe, hydrothermal explosion kwenzeka lapho amanzi angaphansi komhlaba ashisa kakhulu (175 kuya ku-250 degrees Celsius) [175 kuya ku-43h] degrees Celsius. ikhanya ngokushesha ibe isitimu, iphihliza isivalo se-rock esivalekile. Gxumela kude nomcengezi ogudle umgwaqo webhodi ngenkathi ubheka phezulu ukuze ugweme amatshe abhilistikhi awayo, futhi ubeke ubhaka oqinile, isikhwama sekhamera, noma ibhantshi eligoqiwe phezu kwekhanda nentamo yakho ukuze uvikeleke ematsheni awayo kanye nemvula yodaka olubilayo.
2. Ungalokothi wehle emigwaqweni eyakhiwe ngokhuni noma imizila yetshe ekhethiwe endaweni eshisayo, futhi ungalokothi ungene ngemva kwenja noma into ewisiwe. Okubukeka njengomhlabathi oqinile omhlophe noma ompunga eduze kwesiphethu esishisayo kuvame ukuba ngu- *5-to-20-millimeter-thin (0.2-to-0.8-inch-thin) weshelufu le-sist crutter noma i-cavern travern kwamanzi abilayo noma udaka lwe-sulfuric acid (\(p\text{H } 1.5\text{ ukuya ku-}2.5\)). Gcina izinja ku-leash emfushane eqondile kude nezindawo ezishisayo; cishe yonke into ebulalayo ngamabomu esiphethwini esibilayo kwenzeka lapho umnikazi egxuma ukuze asindise isilwane esifuywayo.
3. Uma umhlabathi uqhekeka ngaphansi kwezinyawo zakho noma ubhoboza uqweqwe olushisayo oluncane, beka phansi esiswini sakho ngokushesha bese ugingqika noma ukhase uhlehle ngesisu eduze kwemikhondo yakho yezinyawo. Ukuma uqonde kugxilisa sonke isisindo somzimba wakho endaweni encane yesithende esisodwa sebhuthi. Ukwehla okujwayelekile kusabalalisa isisindo sakho kuwo wonke umzimba wakho nasemalungeni ngenkathi ukhipha imilenze yakho emanzini ashisayo angaphansi kwe-sub-crust.
4. Uma othile ewela esiphethwini esishisayo esibilayo noma ebhodloka oqweqweni olushisayo, mkhiphe ngokushesha, pholisa izindawo ezishile ngamanzi abandayo ahlanzekile, futhi UNGAKHIHLI izingubo zokwenziwa ezinamathelayo. Pholisa izindawo ezishile ngokushesha ngamanzi apholile, ahlanzekile agelezayo (ungalokothi amanzi e-geothermal pool, ashisayo futhi adle amakhemikhali) imizuzu eyi-15 kuya kwengu-20, ugweme ukuncibilika kwesikhumba, ukuvimbela ukuncibilika kwesikhumba, ukuvimbela ukuncibilika kwesikhumba. bopha i-torso nezitho ngokukhululeka ngamashidi omile ahlanzekile noma ifilimu yokudla yepulasitiki, futhi uphume ngendiza enophephela emhlane noma i-ambulensi uye esikhungweni sokusha sesifunda.
5. Bamba umoya bese ukhuphukela emoyeni ngokushesha uma uzwa iphunga lamaqanda abolile avele anyamalale, uzwe isiyezi esizumayo, noma ubona izinyoni ezifile noma izinambuzane endaweni engaphansi komhlaba. Kokubili i-hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) kanye ne-carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) kukhona ama-creek pool, ama-airroll nama-crackers ngaphakathi imigede yeqhwa, kanye nokushisa okushisayo ngesikhathi esipholile. Ngaphezulu kwezingxenye eziyi-100 esigidini ngasinye, i-\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) ikhubaza inzwa yokuhogela ngemizuzwana ukuze ungabe usakwazi ukuhogela iphunga leqanda elibolile ngaphambi nje kuka-500 kuya ku-1,000 ppm kubangela ukuboshwa kokuphefumula "kokushaya phansi".
6. Lahla amathafa acwebezelayo angaphandle (i-sandur), amabhuloho emifula aphansi, nemigede yeqhwa ngokushesha uma uzwa iphunga lesulfure eduze komfula oyiqhwa, uzwa ukuzamazama komhlaba okuhlala njalo okunemvamisa ephansi, noma ubona amanzi angcolile aminyaniswe yiqhwa ephuma empumulweni yeqhwa. Isikhukhula esingaphansi kweqhwa (i-jokul-00) sikhuphula umfula' Ngokuphindwe izikhathi ezingu-1,000 phakathi namahora*, kushanela amabhuloho emigwaqo emikhulu futhi kugqibe amathafa asogwini ayisicaba ngamamayela ububanzi ngaphansi kwamanzi ahlokomayo, izintaba zeqhwa ezingangendlu, kanye nenhlabathi yentaba-mlilo. Shayela noma ugijime uqonde esiteshini somfula ubheke emagqumeni aphakeme.

Isihlahla sesinqumo: isitsha se-geothermal, ukugqama kwe-crust, kanye nokusinda kwe-jokulhlaup¶

flowchart TD
    Start["Kutholwe isimo esiphuthumayo se-Geothermal noma se-Glaciovolcanic"] --> HazardType{"Iyiphi ingozi ethile eyenzekayo njengamanje?"}

    HazardType -->|"1. UKUPHUMULA KWESITHUKO SEHYDROTHERMAL: I-Black Mud Plume, i-Rock Ballistics, i-Loud Boom"| SteamBlast["UKUPHUMA KWE-PHREATIC EXPLOSION: 1. Gijimela umoya futhi usuke endaweni eqhumayo eduze nemigwaqo emisiwe 2. Bheka phezulu ukuze ulandele futhi ugweme amatshe amatshe awela phezulu 3. Vikela ikhanda nentamo ngobhakha noma ijazi elisindayo emvuleni yodaka olubilayo 4. Susa okungenani ama-500 m (1,65m) kude ne-craft esebenzayo"]

    HazardType -->|"2. UKUQHUKA KWE-THERMAL CRUST: Unyawo Lushaya Nge-Sinter Ku-Scalding Pool"| CrustBreak{"Ingabe isisulu sisekhona echibini noma kuqweqwe?"}

    CrustBreak -->|"Ukuzihlenga: Ukuqhekeka kwe-crust ngaphansi kwamabhuzu akho"| BellyCrawl["UKUKHIPHA OKUSHESHAYO: 1. UNGATHATHI esinye isinyathelo esiqondile esiya phambili 2. Beka phansi esiswini sakho noma ezandleni nasemadolweni ukuze usakaze isisindo."]

    CrustBreak -->|"Ukuhlenga umuntu obukele: Isisulu sicwiliswe emanzini noma sishile"| BurnCare["UKUSHISA OKUSHISAYO KANYE NE-ACID TRIAGE: 1. Finyelela isisulu esivela ku-boardwalk usebenzisa isigxobo, igatsha, noma intambo (ungalinge unyathele oqweqweni oluncane) 2. Nisela ukusha ngamanzi ahlanzekile abandayo noma amanzi agelezayo (angewona amanzi ashisayo) 3. UNGAKHISHI izingubo ezincibilikile ezinamathele esikhumbeni; bopha ishidi elomile elihlanzekile 4. Shayela ku-911 / 112 / 111 ukuze uthole ukuphuma kwesikhungo sokusha kwe-ambulensi yomoya ngokushesha"]

    HazardType -->|"3. I-POCKET YEGESI YE-GEOTHERMAL EBUTHINI: Isiyezi, Izilwane Zasendle Ezifile, noma Ukugoqa Kungazelelwe ku-Hollow"| GasEscape["I-H2S & CO2 GAS PACKET POCKET: 1. Bamba umoya ngokushesha bese ukhuphuka u-3 kuya ku-5 m (10 kuya ku-16 ft) ukhuphuke umqansi emoyeni 2. UNGALOKOTHI ugobe noma ungene emgodini ongenalutho noma weqhwa ukuze ukhiphe isisulu esiqulekile ngaphandle kwe-SCBA 3. Uma usemoyeni ohlanzekile, qala ukuphefumula kokuhlenga noma i-CPR uma isisulu sidonswa ngentambo enqenqemeni"]

    HazardType -->|"4. I-SUBGLACIAL OUTBURST (JOKULHLAUP): I-Sulfur Inuka e-Glacier River, i-Trimor, Amanzi Angcolile Akhuphukayo"| Jokulhlaup["UKUPHUMA KWE-JOKULHLAUP FLOODPLAIN: 1. Phuma kuyo yonke imigede yeqhwa, amathafa angaphandle (sandur), namabhuloho emfuleni ngokushesha 2. Shayela noma ugibele endaweni eqinile ephakeme eqondana nesigodi 3. Ungalokothi ume ezindongeni zamatshe aphansi noma ezinqenqemeni zomgwaqo (i-icebergs ingqubuzana namabhuloho kude)"]

I-physics kanye ne-geology yokuqhuma kwe-hydrothermal¶

Izivakashi eziningi ezivakashela amapaki okushisa komhlaba zicabanga ukuthi ukuqhuma kwentaba-mlilo kwenzeka kuphela lapho i-magma encibilikisiwe ikhuphukela phezulu. Eqinisweni, ukuqhuma kwe- hydrothermal (phreatic) kwenzeka kaningi kunokuqhuma kwentaba-mlilo futhi kudinga ukuqubuka okusha kwe-magma. Izibonelo zesimanje ezidumile zifaka ukuqhuma kukaJulayi 2024 Biscuit Basin hydrothermal e-Yellowstone National Park, ukuqhuma kwe-Porkchop Geyser yango-1989, kanye nemigodi emikhulu yangaphambi komlando njenge-Mary Bay kanye ne-Turbid Lake.

1. Umshini wokupheka ongaphansi komhlaba (Ukunwetshwa kweFlash-to-Steam)¶

Ngaphansi kwe-geyser, amanzi angaphansi komhlaba azungeza i-rhyolite ephukile noma idwala le-basalt elishiswa umthombo wokushisa ojulile. Ngenxa yokuthi amanzi angaphansi komhlaba aphethwe ngaphansi kwengcindezi enkulu hydrostatic (isisindo sekholomu yamanzi ngaphezu kwayo) kanye nengcindezi ye-lithostatic (ngoba imvula yamaminerali e-silica ivala ukuqhekeka kwamadwala njengosimende), amanzi angaphansi komhlaba ahlala ewuketshezi emazingeni okushisa ashisa kakhulu angu-175 kuya ku-250 degrees Celsius (347 kuya ku-482 degrees Fahrenheit ngaphezu kwendawo yokubilayo)* - Imbangela yokuwohloka komnotho: Uma kuba nokuzamazama komhlaba okuncane kwasendaweni, ukwehla okungazelelwe kwechibi elingaphezulu, i-clog yangaphakathi yamapayipi ka-geyser, noma imifantu ye-hydrofracturing evalwe nge-silica-sealed rock cap, ingcindezi endaweni engaphansi komhlaba eshisa kakhulu yehla ngokuphazima kweso. - Ukunwetshwa kwevolumu engu-1,600 kuya ku-1: Amanzi awuketshezi ashise kakhulu abengezela kusitimu ngama-millisecond. Ngenxa yokuthi isitimu esisemkhathini sithatha cishe 1,600 izikhathi zevolumu yamanzi awuketshezi, isitimu esibanekayo siyakhula ngodlame lweziqhumane eziphezulu, sihlikihle isivalo se-sinter rock esinamandla futhi ajikijele amanzi abilayo, udaka olune-asidi, namadwala angama-500-kilogram (1,100-pound) amadwala afika ku-30000 kuya kumafidi angu-30000 (3000) ukuya ku-30000 umoya* ngesivinini esingamamitha angama-50 kuye kwayi-150 ngomzuzwana (amamayela angu-110 kuya kwangu-335 ngehora).

2. Ungasinda kanjani ekuqhumeni okusebenzayo kwe-hydrothermal ebangeni eliseduze¶

1. Yazi izandulela ezingamasekhondi ayi-10 kuye kwangama-60: Ngaphambi nje kokuqhuma kwe-hydrothermal, isiphethu ngokuvamile esiluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka noma esiluhlaza singageleza ngokuzumayo nodaka olumnyama noma olumpunga**, idome enkulu yamanzi engamamitha angu-2 ukuya kwangu-5 (amafidi angu-6.5 kuye kwangu-16.5) ukuphakama ingase ivuvukele ngaphezu komfula ocijile, noma iviyo
2. Phuma uhambe ngomgwaqo; UNGALOKOTHI ugxume usuka ku-boardwalk ungene ku-thermal crust ezungezile: Ukwethuka kubangela abantu abagijimayo ngenxa yokuqhuma ukuba bagxume besuka ezinhlangothini zomgwaqo wokhuni, babhoboze baqonde kuqweqwe oluncane lwe-sinter baye kumachibi aseduze angu-93-degree-Celsius (200-degree-Fahrenheit). Hlala emapulangweni ezinkuni noma endleleni yetshe elimisiwe.
3. Buka isibhakabhaka futhi ugweme amatshe ama-ballistic: Amatshe amakhulu akhishwe nge-engeli engu-45-to-80-degree athatha amasekhondi angu-4 ukuya kwangu-12 ukuze afinyelele phezulu kwe-arc futhi abuyele emhlabeni. Ngokungafani negagasi eliqhumayo, amadwala awelayo angalandelelwa ngokubukeka; gcina amehlo akho ebheke phezulu njengoba uhlehla ukuze ukwazi ukunyathela kwesokunxele noma kwesokudla uphume endleleni yetshe, futhi ubambe ubhaka phezu kwekhranium yakho ukuze umunce amatshe amancane kanye nodaka olubilisayo olusaphazeke.

Ukuqhathaniswa kwezingozi ze-geothermal kanye ne-glaciovolcanic¶

Ukusinda ekuphumeleleni kwe-thermal crust nokwelapha ukushiswa kwe-geothermal okushisa kakhulu¶

E-Yellowstone, Rotorua, nase-Iceland, izivakashi eziningi ziyabulawa noma zikhutshazwe unomphelangokunyathela noma ukuwela eziphethwini ezibilayo kunazo zonke ezinye izingozi zentaba-mlilo zihlangene.

1. Kungani i-geothermal iyisicupho esifihliwe¶

Njengoba amanzi ashise kakhulu ekhuphuka emigqeni ejulile, ancibilikisa i-silica (\(\text{SiO}_2\)) noma i-calcium carbonate (\(\text{CaCO}_3\)) iphuma edwaleni lentaba-mlilo. Lapho lawo manzi efika echibini elipholile elingaphezulu, amaminerali ageleza azungeze unqenqema lwentwasahlobo, akha amaleji alamiwe azacile e- siliceous sinter (geyserite) noma travertine akhulela ngaphandle phezu kwamanzi abilayo njengeqhwa elincane leshalofu echibini. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, isitimu esine-asidi esikhuphukayo (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) oxidizing into \(\text{H}_2\text{SO}_4\)) ixhuma idwala eliqinile elizungezile libe ubumba lwe-kaolinite oluthambile, olushelelayo. Isiqeshana senhlabathi esibukeka njengetshe elimhlophe elomile singaba igobolondo lamaminerali eliwugqinsi oluyisentimitha elingu-1 (ugqinsi ngo-0.4-intshi) ngaphezu kwe-95-degree-Celsius (203-degree-Fahrenheit) cauldron.

2. Isinyathelo ngesinyathelo ukunakekelwa kokushiswa kwe-prehospital kwesisulu esibilisayo sasentwasahlobo¶

Uma ingane noma umuntu omdala ewela ngoqweqwe olushisayo noma esiphethwini esishisayo: 1. Suka endaweni eqinile kuphela: Ungalokothi usuke ku-boardwalk ungene onqenqemeni loqweqwe oluntekenteke ukuze ubambe isisulu, noma ishalofu lizowa ngaphansi kwenu nobabili. Lala phansi edekhini yokhuni, welule isigxobo sokukhuphuka, i-tripod, ibhantshi, noma ibhande, bese udonsela isisulu phezu kwamapulangwe. 2. Pholisa indawo eshile ngokushesha ngamanzi ahlanzekile, angashisi (Misa inqubo yokubasa): - Amanzi abilayo ashisayo avaleleke emasokisini ewuli, ebhuzuni lezintaba, namajini ayaqhubeka nokupheka izicubu ezijulile zesikhumba kuze kube yimizuzu emi-3 ngemva kokuba isisulu sikhishiwe echibini. - Thela ngokushesha amanzi abandayo ahlanzekile asuka emabhodleleni amanzi, amaphakethe okukhipha amanzi, noma umfudlana wamanzi ahlanzekile angashisi phezu kwezindawo ezishile. Ungalokothi usebenzise amanzi acwiliswe echibini le-geothermal eliseduze noma umfudlana ofudumele, okungenzeka ashisayo, abe ne-asidi, noma angcolile. - Sika izintambo zebhuthi nezingubo zangaphandle ezingancibiliki ngezikele zokuhlukumezeka noma ummese wephakethe, kodwa UNGALINGE uklebhule noma ukhumule izingubo zokwenziwa noma amasokisi ancibilike futhi axhumene nesikhumba esinamabhamuza, njengoba ukuzikhipha kukhumula yonke i-epidermis nedermis. 3. Ibhalansi ukushisa ukupholisa ngokumelene ne-systemic hypothermia: - Uma ukusha kuvala ngaphansi kwamaphesenti angu-15 Engqikithi Yendawo Yomzimba Engaphezulu (TBSA) (njengonyawo olulodwa noma umlenze ophansi owabhoboza uqweqwe), pholisa isitho ngokuqhubekayo ngamanzi ahlanzekile apholileimizuzu engu-15 kuya kwengu-20 ukuze kumiswe ukuqhubeka kokuvuvukala futhi kunciphise noma yiluphi udaka olushisayo olushisayo. - Uma isisulu sihlaselwe ukucwiliswa umzimba wonke okukhulu (>20 kuya kumaphesenti angu-30 e-TBSA), umgoqo wesikhumba waso uyashabalala futhi uzolahlekelwa ngokushesha ukushisa komzimba futhi angene ekushayweni kwe-hypovolemic. Susa udaka olubilayo bese upholisa isikhumba kafushane 1 kuya kwemizuzu emi-2, bese ugoqa isisulu ngokukhululeka ngamashidi* ahlanzekile, omile angenalutho, ingubo yokulala ehlanzekile ye-Mylar phezu kongqimba lwendwangu eyomile, noma ukugoqa okuhlanzekile kwekhishi okunamapulastiki okubekwe isikhathi eside** (akukaze kuhlanganiswe ngokuqinile emlenzeni njengengxenye yemilenze emincane, kanye nokushiswa). 4. Gcina isiguli siphapheme, sifudumele, futhi siyisicaba, futhi ubize i-medevac yendiza enophephela emhlane: Unganikezi uketshezi ngomlomo uma isiguli sinokushiswa kwe-TBSA > kwamaphesenti angu-20, sihlanza, noma sizodinga intubation ye-endotracheal ephuthumayo lapho sifika esibhedlela. Ukuze uthole ukwaziswa okwengeziwe, bheka ukusha okukhulu nokushiswa kwamakhemikhali.

I-Escaping hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) kanye ne-carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) izicupho zegesi¶

Izimbobo ze-Geothermal zikhulula ngokuqhubekayo isitimu esixutshwe ne-carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)), hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)), kanye ne-sulphur dioxide (\(\text{SO}_2\)). - Kungani izindawo eziphansi ziba amakamelo egesi abulalayo: Ezingeni lokushisa elijwayelekile nokucindezela, i-\(\text{CO}_2\) ine-gravity ethize engu 1.52 kanye ne-\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) ine-gravity ethize engu- 1.19 uma kuqhathaniswa nomoya ovamile (1.00). Ntambama enomoya, isiyaluyalu sixuba futhi sihlambulule la magesi ngokungenabungozi. Ekuseni ** okuzolile, okubandayo, phakathi nokuguquka kwezinga lokushisa lomoya, noma ngaphakathi kokucindezeleka okukhukhulwe yiqhwa, umhume, noma umfula**, amagesi asindayo ayacwila futhi akhe ichibi elingabonakali, elimile legesi ebulalayo elingamamitha angu-0.5 kuya kwangu-2 (amafidi angu-1.6 ukuya kwangu-6.5) ukushona phansi. - I-Olfactory Paralysis Trap ye-Hydrogen Sulfide: Ezingxenyeni ezincane (\(0.01\text{ to }5\text{ppm}\)), \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) inuka kakhulu njengamaqanda abolile. Kodwa-ke, ekugxilweni kuka-100 kuya ku-150 ppm, i-\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) ikhubaza inzwa yomuntu yokuhogela ngamakhemikhali phakathi kwemizuzu emi-2 ukuya kweyi-15. Umhambi ohamba ephaketheni legesi eligxilile ngokuzumayo ucabanga ukuthi umoya usuhambile ngoba iphunga leqanda elibolile liyanyamalala; izinyathelo ezimbili kamuva, ku-500 kuya ku-1,000 ppm, ukuphefumula okukodwa kwe-\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) kubophezela ku-mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase esiqwini sobuchopho, okubangela ukuquleka ngokushesha ("i-laughterhouse knockdown") kanye nokuboshwa kokuphefumula. - Umthetho wokutakula: Uma ubona umuntu oqwala izintaba, isisebenzi, noma isilwane esincelisayo esikhulu silele siqulekile emgodini oshisiwe we-geothermal, umsele weqhwa, noma umgodi wendlu yokugezela oshisayo wasentwasahlobo, UNGAngeni phansi ekucindezelekeni ukuze uhlole ukushaya kwenhliziyo kwaso. Bamba umoya wakho, hlala kunqenqema oluphezulu oluvunguzayo, bese uzama kuphela ukuqhwaga, intambo ende, noma ukugxumeka igatsha elide. uhlale ngokuphelele emoyeni omusha ovunguzayo; uma kungenjalo shayela abezimo eziphuthumayo bosizo lwe-Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA). Funda wethu i-cyanide, i-hydrogen sulfide, kanye nomhlahlandlela wosizo lokuqala wokuhogela igesi yezimboni.

Ukusinda ekuqhumeni kweqhwa (jokulhlaup)¶

Isuselwa egameni lesi-Icelandic elithi "i-glacier leap," i-jokulhlaup* iyisikhukhula esiyinhlekelele esikhishwe ngaphansi kweqhwa noma iqhwa. Nakuba amanye ama-jokulhlaups edonsa amachibi asemikhawulweni yeqhwa phakathi nezinsuku, izehlakalo eziyingozi kakhulu zenzeka ezindaweni zeqhwa eziqhuma intaba-mlilo (ezifana ne-Vatnajokull kanye ne-Myrdalsjokull / Katla* e-Iceland, Mount Rainier kanye ne Redoubt / Spurr e-United States, noma iqhwa elingaphansi kweqhwa kanye ne-Alaska) ama-calderas noma ukuqhuma kwentaba-mlilo engaphansi kweqhwa kuncibilikisa izigidi zama-cubic metres amanzi ngaphansi kwamakhulu amamitha eqhwa.

1. Indlela i-jokulhlaup eyakha ngayo futhi ixebuka¶

Njengoba ukushisa kwe-geothermal kuncibilikisa indawo engaphansi yesivalo seqhwa phakathi nezinyanga noma amahora, ichibi elingaphansi kweqhwa linqwabelana phakathi kwedwala eliphansi noma i-cauldron yeqhwa. Lapho ukujula nokucindezela kwe-hydrostatic kulawo manzi avaleleke kufinyelela cishe amaphesenti angu-90 ogqinsi lwedamu leqhwa (ngoba iqhwa linobukhulu obungu-\(0.917 amagremu ku-cubic sentimitha\) uma kuqhathaniswa namanzi awuketshezi angama-\(1.00 amagremu ku-cubic centimeter\)), idamu leqhwa lintanta phezulu ngemihubhe encibilikayo. Isifufula samanzi aqandayo, umlotha wentaba-mlilo, amatshe, namabhulokhi eqhwa angu-1,000-tons weqhwa aqhuma empumulweni yeqhwa enqamula ithafa eliyisicaba langaphandle (sandur). Ngo-1996 ngesikhathi sokuqhuma kweqhwa e-Gjallp e-Iceland, i-Skeidararhlaup jokulhlaup yafinyelela ukukhishwa okuphezulu okungu- 50,000 cubic metres ngomzuzwana (1.76 million cubic feet ngomzuzwana), kafushane yaba umfula wesibili ngobukhulu eMhlabeni futhi yashanela izinti zensimbi zomgwaqo onjengothelawayeka.

2. Imithetho yokusinda ngokushesha ezigodini zeqhwa nasemigedeni yeqhwa¶

1. Lalela uphawu lokuqala lwesixwayiso lwensimu engu-#1, iphunga lamaqanda abolile okungazelelwe (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) eduze nomfula owucwecwe: Amachibi angaphansi kweqhwa agcwele i-hydrogen sulfide encibilikile. Amahora ngaphambi kokuthi igagasi lezikhukhula liqhume endaweni ehlala iqhwa, amanzi angaphansi kweqhwa acindezelwe aqala ukuvuza emiseleni yomfula, akhiphe iphunga elibabayo elithi sulphur noma iqanda elibolile osebeni lomfula namabhuloho. Uma uhogela isibabule eduze kweqhwa noma umfula oyiqhwa, phuma esigodini ngokushesha.
2. Ungalokothi ungene emgodini weqhwa ongaphansi kweqhwa phakathi nemvula efudumele, incibilika yasentwasahlobo, noma umsebenzi wokuzamazama komhlaba ophakeme: Izivakashi ezivakashela imigede yeqhwa eliluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka ngaphansi kwezinguzunga zeqhwa zingavaleleka emizuzwini embalwa uma imigudu yamanzi angaphansi kweqhwa ibuyela emuva noma ibhidliza uphahla lweqhwa.
3. Ungalokothi ume ebhulohweni elingaphezu kwethafa elinoqhwa ukuze ubuke izikhukhula: I-jokulhlaup ayiziphathi njengamanzi acwebile; kuwudaka olune-hyperconcentrated oluthwala 10-to-30-metres-wide (33-to-100-foot-wide) izintaba zeqhwa* ezihamba amakhilomitha ayi-15 kuya ku-30 ​​ngehora (9 kuya ku-19 miles ngehora). Lezi zintaba zeqhwa zigxumela ezinsikeni zebhuloho futhi zinqwabelane ngokumelene nezitezi zebhuloho kuze kube yilapho lonke ibhuloho lomgwaqo omkhulu lidatshulwa. Shayela ngokuphelele ethafeni elingaphandle eliyisicaba (sandur) ungene emagqumeni aqinile ngaphambi kokuma.

Izinombolo zezimo eziphuthumayo zesifunda kanye nezinqubomgomo ze-ejensi¶

• I-United States: Shayela u-911* ngokushesha (noma uhlabe umkhosi i-National Park Service Law Enforcement Ranger uma ukutholakala kwamaselula kuvinjwe izindonga ze-canyon; yenza kusebenze isithunywa sesathelayithi se-SOS uma usendaweni engemuva). Gada USGS Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO), Cascade Volcano Observatory (CVO), kanye Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) (volcanoes.usgs.gov) ngezixwayiso ze-hydrothermal ne-glaciovolcanic.
• I-Iceland: Shayela u-112* ukuze uthole usizo oluphuthumayo kanye ne-*Icelandic Association for Search and Rescue (ICE-SAR / Landsbjorg)**. Gada I-Icelandic Meteorological Office (Iziqhingi ze-IMO / Vedurstofa, vedur.is) kanye noMnyango Wezokuvikela Nokuphathwa Kwezimo Eziphuthumayo (Almannavarnir / safetravel.is), ephusha izexwayiso zokuphuma komsakazo we-SMS eziphoqelekile kuwo wonke amafoni angaphakathi kwe-jokulhlaup noma indawo eyingozi yentaba-mlilo (njenge-Myrdalssandur, Skeidararsandur, noma Grindavik).
• I-New Zealand: Shayela u-111* ukuze uthole Amaphoyisa, I-Fire and Emergency NZ, kanye ne-Ambulensi. Gada GeoNet (geonet.org.nz) kanye noMnyango Wokongiwa Kwemvelo (DOC) Wamazinga Okwazisa Ngentaba-mlilo kanye nezingozi zokushisa kwamanzi endaweni yonkana ye-Taupo Volcanic Zone, Rotorua, Tongariro, and Ruapehu (lapho unjiniyela IMITHETHO wesistimu yesixwayiso se-acoustic lahar/ukuqhuma icupha amasango avimbelayo azenzakalelayo nezinsimbi).
• European Union, Italy, and Kamchatka / Asia-Pacific: Shayela 112 kulo lonke elaseYurophu. E-Italy (izinkambu ze-Campi Flegrei / Solfatara phreatic kanye ne-\(\text{CO}_2\)$ fumarole), landela i-Protezione Civile kanye ne-INGV yezindawo ezingafakwanga. E-Japan (lapho ukuqhuma kwesitimu sentaba-mlilo kanye ne-\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) amaphakethe egesi e-Mount Ontake, Kusatsu-Shirane, nase-Hakone Owakudani kuyizingozi ezinkulu), shayela u-119 bese ulandela i-Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) izexwayiso zentaba-mlilo.

Imibuzo ejwayelekile ukubuzwa¶

Ingabe ukuqhuma kwe-hydrothermal e-Yellowstone noma e-Rotorua kusho ukuthi ukuqhuma kwe-supervolcano kuyaqala?¶

Cha. Ngokusho kwe-United States Geological Survey (USGS) kanye ne-GNS Science New Zealand, ukuqhuma kwe-hydrothermal kuyizehlakalo zamapayipi amanzi angashoni ezenzeka phezulu kwamamitha ayi-10 kuya kwangu-200 (33 kuya ku-650 amafidi) oqweqwe lapho amanzi angaphansi komhlaba aphuma udaka. Azibandakanyi i-magma ekhuphukayo futhi azizona izandulela zokuqhuma kwentaba-mlilo enkulu; empeleni, ukuqhuma okuncane kwe-hydrothermal kwenzeka ndawana thize e-Yellowstone cishe njalo ngonyaka, futhi imigodi emikhulu iqhuma njalo ngemva kwamashumi ambalwa eminyaka kuya kumakhulu eminyaka njengoba i-silica yamaminerali ivala amashaneli angaphansi komhlaba.

Kungani kungafanele ukhumule izingubo zokwenziwa zokuqwala izintaba uma othile ewela esiphethwini esishisayo esibilayo?¶

Uma umhambi ogqoke inayiloni, i-polyester, noma izingubo ze-polypropylene iwela ku-93-degree-Celsius (200-degree-Fahrenheit) emanzini ashisayo, izinga lokushisa elibilayo libangela ukushuba okugcwele kwe-epidermal osheshayo ngenkathi ithambise indwangu yokwenziwa endaweni eqhumayo. Ukukhumula ibhulukwe elinamathiselwe noma amasokisi ku-boardwalk kuklebhula amashidi esikhumba esingaphansi, kubangela ukopha okukhulu, kuveza imizwa eluhlaza emoyeni, futhi kwandisa kakhulu amagciwane kanye nokulahlekelwa uketshezi. Esikhundleni salokho, pholisa ukusha ngokushesha ezingutsheni ngamanzi abandayo ahlanzekile, usike indwangu evulekile kuphela emaphethelweni, futhi uvumele odokotela abahlinzayo abasendaweni eshile bangcolise impahla enamathiselwe ngaphansi kwe-anesthesia eyinyumba.

Kungenzeka kanjani ukuthi isiphethu esishisayo esibilayo sibe ne-asidi eqinile noma sibe ne-alkaline eqinile?¶

Amanzi ashisayo awela ezigabeni ezimbili ezihlukene zamakhemikhali ezibhubhisa izicubu zomuntu ngokushesha kunamanzi abilayo ahlanzekile. Imithombo ye-Acid-sulfate (evamile emabhodweni odaka nasemagqumeni e-fumarole ano-$p\text{H } 1.2\text{ ukuya ku-}3.0$) uma ikhuphuka igesi ye-hydrogen sulfide incibilika emanzini anomoya-mpilo angashoni futhi ifakwe i-oxygen ngamabhaktheriya e-*Sulfolobus* ibe yikhemikhali ye-sulfuric acid egxilile ekushiseni okukhulu kwe-sulfuric acid. Imithombo ye-alkaline-chloride (amagiza amaningi aluhlaza acwebile ano-$p\text{H } 8.5\text{ ukuya ku-}9.5$) anothe nge-silica encibilikisiwe ne-sodium carbonate; i-alkalinity ephezulu i-saponify (incibilikisa) ama-lipids anamafutha kulwelwesi lwamaseli omuntu, okuvumela ukushisa okushisayo kungene kujule ezicutshini ezingaphansi kwesikhumba.

Ngingakwazi yini ukuphila uma ngephutha ngidlule kuqweqwe oluncane lwe-sinter ngifike edolweni lami?¶

Yebo, ukulimala koqweqwe lomlenze ophansi cishe kungasindiswa njalo uma uwisa phansi ngokushesha ukuze usakaze isisindo sakho, ukhase ubuyele ku-boardwalk, ugeze umlenze ngamanzi abandayo ahlanzekile imizuzu engu-15 kuya kwengu-20, futhi uthuthelwe esikhungweni sokusha. Ukufa kwabantu ezingozini zasentwasahlobo ezishisayo kuhlobene kakhulu nephesenti LeTotal Body Surface Area (TBSA) eshile: ukuqubuka kweqakala kuya edolweni kuvamise ukuthi kuthinte amaphesenti angu-7 kuya kwangu-15 e-TBSA, kuyilapho ukushibilika kuqala esiphethwini esibilayo esinamagquma kubangela amaphesenti angama-80 kuya kwangu-100 okuthi i-TBSA ishe ngokushesha.

Iyini ingozi edla ubuchopho ye-amoeba eziphethwini ezishisayo zemvelo?¶

Iziphethu zamanzi ashisayo ashisayo phakathi kuka-25 no-46 degrees Celsius (77 kanye no-115 degrees Fahrenheit) ngokwemvelo zinechweba *I-Naegleria fowleri*, i-amoeba ephilayo ephilayo e-thermophilic ehlala endaweni engaphansi. Ukuphuza amanzi akubangeli izifo, futhi ukucwiliswa entanyeni kuye phansi kuphephile; ingozi ivela lapho amanzi afudumele entwasahlobo ephoqelelwa ukuba akhuphukele phezulu emigudwini yamakhala ngesikhathi sokutshuza, ukudunsa ikhanda lakho, noma ukuchafaza. I-amoeba inyusa imigudu yezinzwa ezinukayo iye ebuchosheni, ibangele i-Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM), enezinga lokufa elingaphezu kwamaphesenti angu-97. Hlala ugcina ikhanda lakho ngaphezu kwamanzi noma gqoka isiqeshana sekhala eliqinile eziphethwini zemvelo ezifudumele. Ukuthatha isifundo sosizo lokuqala esivela ku-Red Cross, i-St John Ambulance, noma umhlinzeki wendawo ufundisa ukushiswa okusindisa ukuphila nokunakekelwa kwezimo eziphuthumayo zemvelo.

Iziqondiso ezihlobene¶

• I-glacial lake liqhume izikhukhula kanye nokuphuma kokungasebenzi kwamadamu
• Ukuqhuma kwe-Limnic kanye namafu egesi ye-volcanic carbon dioxide
• Usizo lokuqala lokusha nokushiswa kwamakhemikhali
• I-Cyanide, i-hydrogen sulfide, negesi yezimboni usizo lokuqala

Imithombo neziqondiso ezisemthethweni¶

• I-United States Geological Survey (USGS) ne-Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO): Hydrothermal Explosions in Yellowstone National Park: Mechanics of Phreatic Flash-to-Steam Decompression, Crater Ballistics, and Geothermal Gas Hazards.
• I-United States National Park Service (NPS): Yellowstone Thermal Basin Safety Protocols, Sinter Crust Breakthrough Prevention, kanye ne-Backcountry Geothermal First Aid.
• Ihhovisi le-Icelandic Meteorological (I-IMO / Vedurstofa Islands) kanye ne-Almannavarnir (I-Civil Protection Iceland): I-Jokulhlaup (I-Subglacial Outburst Flood) Izinhlelo Zokuqala Zesexwayiso, I-Katla ne-Grímsvötn Evacuation Plans, kanye Nokuphepha Kwendawo Eshisayo.
• I-GNS Science New Zealand (Te Pu Ao) kanye Nomnyango Wezokongiwa Kwemvelo (DOC): Taupo Volcanic Zone and Rotorua Hydrothermal Hazard Assessments kanye ne-Mt. Ruapehu Crater Lake Outburst Protocols.
• I-American Burn Association (ABA) kanye ne-Wilderness Medical Society (WMS): Ukuphathwa Kwangaphambi Kwesibhedlela Sokushiswa Kwe-Thermal Okubi kanye Namakhemikhali Ezindaweni Ezikude.