Mgbawa ikuku nke mmiri mmiri, ihe mgbawa nke Geyser Basin Crust, na mgbawa glacial.¶

Ala geothermal na ala mgbawa ugwu (dị ka Yellowstone National Park na United States, Taupo Volcanic Zone na Rotorua na New Zealand, Iceland's volcanic rift zones, Kamchatka, and the Andes) na-eweta mberede atọ na mberede, nchekwa ndụ jikọtara ọnụ: **hydrothermal tupu magma ije, ** sinter na travertine crust breakthroughs ** n'ime 93-degree-Celsius (200-degree-Fahrenheit) na-ekpo ọkụ acidic ma ọ bụ alkaline ọdọ mmiri, na ** subglacial outburst idei mmiri (jokulhlaups) ** ebe subglacial okpomọkụ geothermal ma ọ bụ mgbawa mgbawa n'okpuru mmiri na-agbaze ice mmiri ruo mgbe mmiri na-agbaze nke ice. mgbawa. Tụkwasị na nke ahụ, ịda mbà n'obi na-ekpo ọkụ na-ekpo ọkụ na fumarole nke snow kpuchiri ekpuchi adịghị ahụ anya, ọdọ mmiri ndị na-esighị ike na-esi ísì ụtọ nke hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\))) na carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) na-akpata ịdaba na iku ume abụọ. Ọ bụrụ na ihe mberede emee na basin geothermal ma ọ bụ glacial, kpọọ nọmba mberede mpaghara gị ozugbo (911 na United States na Canada, 112 n'ofe European Union na Iceland, 111 na New Zealand, 999 na United Kingdom) ma ọ bụ lelee akwụkwọ ndekọ aha anyị nọmba mberede. Maka ihe egwu ala ala ndị metụtara, gụọ ntuziaka anyị na Ọdọ mmiri glacial tiwapụrụ idei mmiri na mkpọpu mmiri dam, ugwu mgbawa, limnic eruptions na mgbawa ugwu carbon dioxide gas ígwé ojii, na oké ọkụ na mmiri mmiri mmiri.

Mee nke a ugbu a¶

1. ** Gbanahụ elu na mpụta pụọ na geyser ọ bụla ma ọ bụ ọdọ mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ nke na-aghọ apịtị na mberede, na-agbago elu ụlọ, ma ọ bụ malite ịwepụ iberibe nkume ndị gbara ọchịchịrị.* ngwa ngwa ka uzuoku, na-akụrisị okpu okwute ahụ. Wepụ n'ebe mmiri dị n'akụkụ ụzọ ụgbọ mmiri ka ị na-elepụ anya elu iji dochie nkume ballistic na-ada, ma tinye akpa azụ azụ siri ike, akpa igwefoto, ma ọ bụ jaket apịaji n'isi na olu gị iji chebe okwute na-ada na mmiri na-esi mmiri.
2. **Adịla mgbe ị ga-esi n'okporo ụzọ awara awara awara wuo n'obere mmiri geothermal, abanyekwala n'ime nkịta ma ọ bụ ihe dara ada. mmiri ma ọ bụ sulfuric acid apịtị (\(p\text{H } 1.5\ederede {ka }2.5\)). Debe nkịta n'obere ntachi dị mkpụmkpụ ka ọ pụọ na ebe okpomọkụ; ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ nbanye ọ bụla na-egbu egbu n'ime mmiri na-esi mmiri na-apụta mgbe onye nwe ya wụbatara iji napụta anụ ụlọ a tọhapụrụ.
3. ** Ọ bụrụ na ala gbawara n'okpuru ụkwụ gị ma ọ bụ na-akụtu ihe dị mkpa na-ekpo ọkụ, daa n'afọ gị ozugbo wee tụgharịa ma ọ bụ afọ na-arịghachi azụ n'ụkwụ gị kpọmkwem. Ịtụda ihe na-adịkarị mfe na-agbasa ibu gị n'ogo na aka gị ka ị na-adọpụ ụkwụ gị n'okpuru mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ.
4. ** Ọ bụrụ na mmadụ daa n'ime mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ na-esi ísì ma ọ bụ na-agbaji n'ụdị nke na-ekpo ọkụ, wepụ ya ozugbo, mee ka ọkụ ahụ dị jụụ na mmiri oyi dị ọcha, ewepụla uwe sịntetik na-edozi ahụ. toso na aka na-adịghị mma na mpempe akọrọ dị ọcha ma ọ bụ ihe nkiri nri rọba, wee si na helikopta ma ọ bụ ụgbọ ihe mberede pụọ na mpaghara ọkụ mpaghara.
5. **Jide ume gị ma rịgoro elu n'ikuku ozugbo ma ọ bụrụ na ị na-esi ísì nsen rere ure na-apụ na mberede, na-eche dizziness na mberede, ma ọ bụ hụ nnụnụ ma ọ bụ ụmụ ahụhụ nwụrụ anwụ na oghere geothermal. Ọgba snow, na nkụda mmụọ okpomọkụ n'oge ihu igwe dị jụụ. N'ihe karịrị 100 akụkụ kwa nde, \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) na-eme ka akwara ndị na-esi ísì ahụ kpọnwụrụ akpọnwụ n'ime sekọnd ka ị gharazi isi ísì akwa rere ure tupu 500 ruo 1,000 ppm na-ebute njide iku ume "akụda" ozugbo.
6. ** Hapụ glacial outwash plains (sandur), obere osimiri àkwà mmiri, na ice ọgba ozugbo ma ọ bụrụ na ị na-esi sulfur n'akụkụ a glacial osimiri, na-enwe na-aga n'ihu na ala-frequency ala ịma jijiji, ma ọ bụ hụ unyi akpụrụ mmiri kpagburu na-esi na glacier snout. n'ime awa, na-ekpochapụ àkwà mmiri okporo ụzọ ma na-eli ala dị larịị n'ụsọ oké osimiri kilomita n'obosara n'okpuru mmiri na-ebigbọ, nnukwu iceberg nke ụlọ, na sedimenti mgbawa. Ụgbọala ma ọ bụ gbaa ọsọ n'akụkụ ọwa osimiri na-aga n'akụkụ ugwu dị elu.

Osisi mkpebi: basin geothermal, ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ, na nlanarị jokulhlaup¶

flowchart TD
    Start["Achọpụtara ihe mberede Geothermal ma ọ bụ Glaciovolcanic"] --> HazardType{"Kedu ihe egwu a kapịrị ọnụ na-eme ugbu a?"}

    HazardType -->|"1. MKWAGHỊ ỤZỌ HYDROTHERMAL: Black Mud Plume, Rock Ballistics, Ọganihu Ụda."| SteamBlast["PHREATIC EXPLOSION EVACUATION: 1. Gbaa elu wee pụọ na ikuku na-agbawa n'akụkụ ụzọ ụgbọ mmiri guzosiri ike 2. Lee anya ka egwu wee dochie oghere dị elu nke na-ada ụda nkume 3. Shield head and olu na akpa azu ma ọ bụ akwa akwa megide mmiri mmiri na-esi mmiri 4. Move at least 500 m (1,650 crarim from active ft)"]

    HazardType -->|"2. ỌKWU ỤBỌCHỊ KWURU: Ụkwụ Ụkwụ Site na Sinter n'ime ọdọ mmiri Scalding"| CrustBreak{"Onye a tara ahụhụ ọ ka nọ n'ọdọ mmiri ma ọ bụ na eriri?"}

    CrustBreak -->|"Ịzọpụta onwe: Crust cracking n'okpuru akpụkpọ ụkwụ gị"| BellyCrawl["Mpụpụ ngwa ngwa: 1. Ebulila nzọụkwụ kwụ ọtọ ọzọ gaa n'ihu 2. Wetuo ala n'afọ ma ọ bụ aka na ikpere gị ka ị gbasaa arọ 3. Nyegharịa ma ọ bụ afọ-azụ azụ n'okporo ụzọ bọọdụ siri ike ma ọ bụ gravel."]

    CrustBreak -->|"Nnapụta ndị nọ n'akụkụ: imikpu onye ihe metụtara ma ọ bụ gbaa ọkụ"| BurnCare["NDỊ NA-ECHICHE THERMAL & ACID TRIAGE: 1. Iji osisi, alaka, ma ọ bụ eriri rute onye a tara ahụhụ site n'ụgbọ okporo ígwè (ọ dịghị mgbe ọ bụla ị ga-abanye n'ime obere eriri) 2. Gbaa ọkụ na mmiri oyi dị ọcha ma ọ bụ mmiri iyi (ọ dịghị mgbe mmiri ọkụ) 3. Akwụsịla uwe gbazere agbaze na akpụkpọ ahụ; Kechie na mpempe akọrọ dị ọcha 4. Kpọọ 911/112/111 maka mgbapụ n'etiti ikuku ụgbọ ihe mberede ọkụ ozugbo."]

    HazardType -->|"3. Akpa gas gas na-egbu egbu: Dizziness, anụ ọhịa nwụrụ anwụ, ma ọ bụ ndakpọ na mberede na oghere."| GasEscape["H2S & CO2 GAS POCKET ESCAPE: 1. Jide ume ozugbo wee rịgoro 3 ruo 5 m (10 ruo 16 ft) n'ugwu n'ikuku 2. Ehulatala ma ọ bụ banye n'ọgba ma ọ bụ snow iji dọpụta onye amaghị ihe ọ bụla na-enweghị SCBA 3. Ozugbo ikuku dị ọhụrụ, malite iku ume ma ọ bụ CPR ma ọ bụrụ na ejiri eriri dọpụtara onye ahụ n'ọnụ."]

    HazardType -->|"4. SUBGLACIAL OUTBURST (JOKULHLAUP): Sulfur Smell na Glacier River, Tremor, Rising Dirty Water"| Jokulhlaup["Mwepu mmiri ozuzo JOKULHLAUP: 1. Wepụ n'ọgba ice niile, mbara ala na-apụ apụ (sandur), na akwa mmiri ozugbo 2. Ụgbọala ma ọ bụ rịgoro n'elu akwa akwa siri ike ruo na ndagwurugwu 3. Akwụsịla na obere gravel bars ma ọ bụ okporo ụzọ embankments (icebergs batter bridges away)"]

The physics na geology nke hydrothermal mgbawa¶

Ọtụtụ ndị ọbịa na ogige ntụrụndụ geothermal na-eche na mgbawa ugwu na-eme naanị mgbe magma gbazere gbagoro n'elu. N'ezie, mgbawa hydrothermal (phreatic) na-eme ugboro ugboro karịa mgbawa ugwu mgbawa na-achọ ** efu ọgbaghara magma ọhụrụ. Ọmụmaatụ ọgbara ọhụrụ a ma ama gụnyere Julaị 2024 Biscuit Basin hydrothermal mgbawa na Yellowstone National Park, mgbawa Porkchop Geyser nke 1989, yana nnukwu olulu prehistoric dị ka Mary Bay na Turbid Lake.

1. Usoro ihe eji esi nri nrụgide n'okpuru ala (Flash-to-Steam Expansion)¶

N'okpuru efere geyser, mmiri dị n'ime ala na-ekesa site na rhyolite gbajiri agbaji ma ọ bụ nkume basalt nke nnukwu isi iyi ọkụ magmatic na-ekpo ọkụ. N'ihi na a na-ejide mmiri n'okpuru ala n'okpuru ibu ** hydrostatic pressure ** (ịdị arọ nke kọlụm mmiri dị n'elu ya) na ** lithostatic pressure ** (n'ihi na mmiri ozuzo silica na-ekpuchi nkume dị ka ciment), mmiri dị n'okpuru ala na-anọgide na mmiri na okpomọkụ dị ọkụ nke ** 175 ruo 250 degrees Celsius (347 ruo 482 degrees Celsius, na-esi n'elu Fahrenheit). - ** Ihe na-akpata nhụsianya: *** Ọ bụrụ na obere ala ọma jijiji dị na mpaghara, ọdịda mberede na ọkwa ọdọ mmiri, mkpọchi dị n'ime olulu mmiri geyser, ma ọ bụ hydrofracturing na okpu nkume nke silica mechiri, nrụgide dị na ọdọ mmiri dị n'okpuru ala na-ekpo ọkụ na-ada ozugbo. - ** Mgbasawanye olu 1,600-to-1:** Mmiri mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ nke ukwuu na-agbanye n'ime uzuoku na milliseconds. N'ihi na uzuoku na ikuku ikuku na-eji ihe dị ka ** 1,600 ugboro olu mmiri mmiri **, uzuoku na-egbuke egbuke na-agbasawanye site na ime ihe ike nke ihe mgbawa dị elu, na-akụda okpu nkume na-ekpuchi elu ma na-atụba mmiri esi mmiri, apịtị acid, na 500-kilogram (1,100-paụnd) nkume dị elu ruo mita 3 ** ruo 3 ** site n'ikuku ** na ọsọ nke 50 ruo 150 mita kwa nkeji (110 ruo 335 kilomita kwa elekere).

2. Otu esi adị ndụ na mgbawa hydrothermal na-arụ ọrụ na nso nso¶

1. Mara ihe mmalite nke 10 ruo 60 nke abụọ: *** Tupu mgbawa hydrothermal, mmiri na-acha anụnụ anụnụ ma ọ bụ akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ na-acha anụnụ anụnụ nwere ike na-agba na mberede na ** nwa ma ọ bụ apịtị isi awọ **, nnukwu dome mmiri dị mita 2 ruo 5 (6.5 ruo 16.5 ụkwụ) dị elu nwere ike ịza n'elu ikuku ikuku, ma ọ bụ osisi nwere ike ịma jijiji n'okpuru ikuku.
2. ** Gbapụ n'akụkụ ụzọ ụgbọ mmiri; Awụpụla n'okporo ụzọ bọọdụ banye n'ọkụ ọkụ gbara ya gburugburu:** Ụjọ na-eme ka ndị mmadụ na-agba ọsọ site na mgbawa na-amali n'akụkụ akụkụ okporo ụzọ osisi ahụ, na-akpụ ụkwụ kwụ ọtọ site na obere eriri mmiri banye n'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri 93-degree-Celsius (200-degree-Fahrenheit). Nọrọ n'elu osisi ma ọ bụ ụzọ gravel guzosiri ike.
3. ** Lelee mbara igwe wee wepụ okwute ballistic:** nnukwu nkume ndị a chụpụrụ n'ogo ogo 45 ruo 80 were ** 4 ruo 12 sekọnd iji rute elu nke arc ha wee daa azụ n'ụwa. N'adịghị ka ebili mmiri na-agbawa, nkume ndị na-ada ada nwere ike ịhụ anya; welie anya gị elu ka ị na-ala azụ ka ị nwee ike isi n'aka ekpe ma ọ bụ aka nri pụọ na ọnọdụ nkume, ma jide akpa azụ n'elu cranium gị iji nweta obere gravel na mmiri na-esi ísì ụtọ.

Ntụnyere ihe egwu geothermal na glaciovolcanic¶

Ịlanarị nrịanrịa nhịahụ ọkụ yana ịgwọ oke ọkụ geothermal¶

Na Yellowstone, Rotorua, na Iceland, ọtụtụ ndị ọbịa na-egbu ma ọ bụ nwee nkwarụ na-adịgide adịgide site na ** steepụ ma ọ bụ ịdaba n'ime isi iyi na-esi ísì ụtọ *** karịa ihe egwu mgbawa ugwu ndị ọzọ jikọtara ọnụ.

1. Gịnị kpatara ala geothermal ji bụrụ ọnyà zoro ezo¶

Ka mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ na-esi na mgbaji dị omimi na-ebili, ọ na-agbaze silica (\(\text{SiO}_2\)) ma ọ bụ calcium carbonate (\(\text{CaCO}_3\)) site na nkume mgbawa. Mgbe mmiri ahụ rutere ọdọ mmiri nju oyi, mineral na-asọpụta n'akụkụ ọnụ mmiri ahụ, na-ewulite oghere nke siliceous sinter (geyserite) ma ọ bụ ** travertine** nke na-eto n'elu elu mmiri na-esi esi dị ka ice shelf dị warara n'elu ọdọ mmiri. N'otu oge ahụ, uzuoku acidic na-ebili (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) oxidizing into \(\text{H}_2\text{SO}_4\)))) na-eme ka nkume siri ike gbara ya gburugburu bụrụ ụrọ kaolinite na-amị amị. Ngwunye ala nke dị ka nkume na-acha ọcha akọrọ nwere ike ịbụ shei ịnweta 1-centimeter-thick (0.4-inch-thick) n'elu akwa 95-degree-Celsius (203-degree-Fahrenheit).

2. Nlekọta ọkụ n'ihu ụlọ ọgwụ nzọụkwụ maka onye na-esi mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ¶

Ọ bụrụ na nwatakịrị ma ọ bụ okenye daa site na eriri ọkụ ma ọ bụ n'ime mmiri ọkụ: 1. ** Ewepụla naanị n'ụkwụ siri ike:** esila n'okporo ụzọ bọọdụ banye n'ọnụ ọnụ ahịhịa na-emebi emebi iji jide onye ihe metụtara, ma ọ bụ shelf ga-ada n'okpuru unu abụọ. Dina ala n'elu oche ụgbọ okporo ígwè osisi, gbatịa okporo osisi, tripod, jaket ma ọ bụ eriri, ma dọta onye ahụ n'elu osisi. 2. Jiri mmiri dị ọcha na-adịghị eme ka ọkụ dị jụụ ozugbo (Kwụsị usoro ọkụ): - Mmiri geothermal na-esi esi tọgbọrọ na sọks ajị anụ, akpụkpọ ụkwụ na-eme njem, na jeans na-aga n'ihu na-esi nri anụ ahụ miri emi ruo nkeji 3 ka ewepụrụ onye ahụ n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ. - Ngwa ngwa wụsa ** mmiri oyi dị ọcha site na karama mmiri, ngwugwu hydration, ma ọ bụ iyi mmiri na-adịghị ọkụ ** n'elu ebe ọkụ. ** Ejila mmiri siri na ọdọ mmiri geothermal dị nso ma ọ bụ ọwa mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ , nke nwere ike ịdị ọkụ, acidic, ma ọ bụ mmetọ. - Wepụ eriri akpụkpọ ụkwụ na uwe elu na-agbaze na-adịghị agbaze na mma trauma ma ọ bụ mma akpa, ** ma ọ dịghị mgbe ị ga-adọka ma ọ bụ bepụ uwe sịntetik ma ọ bụ sọks gbazere ma jikọta ya na akpụkpọ ahụ gbawara agbawa. 3. ** Nhazi ọkụ jụrụ oyi megide hypothermia sistemu: *** - Ọ bụrụ na ọkụ ahụ kpuchiri ** ihe na-erughị pasent 15 nke mkpokọta ahụ dị n'elu mpaghara (TBSA) (dị ka otu ụkwụ ma ọ bụ ụkwụ dị ala nke kụrụ n'ime eriri ahụ), mee ka akụkụ ahụ dị jụụ na-eji mmiri dị ọcha dị jụụ maka ** 15 ruo 20 nkeji ** iji kwụsị mkpasu iwe ma wepụ apịtị ọ bụla acidic. - Ọ bụrụ na onye ahụ tara ahụhụ ** nnukwu imikpu n'ime ahụ (> 20 ruo 30 pasent TBSA)**, a na-emebi ihe mgbochi akpụkpọ ahụ ha, ha ga-efunahụ okpomọkụ nke ahụ ngwa ngwa wee banye n'ime ọkụ ọkụ hypovolemic. Wepu apịtị na-esi esi wee mee ka akpụkpọ ahụ dị nkenke maka ** 1 ruo 2 nkeji **, wee kechie onye ahụ na-adịghị mma na ** dị ọcha, mpempe akwụkwọ na-adịghị ọcha, blanketị oghere Mylar dị ọcha n'elu akwa akwa akọrọ, ma ọ bụ ihe mkpuchi kichin plastik dị ọcha ka edobere ya ogologo oge. 4. ** Mee ka onye ọrịa na-amụ anya, na-ekpo ọkụ, na nke dị larịị, ma kpọọ maka helikopta medevac ozugbo: ** enyela mmiri mmiri n'ọnụ ma ọ bụrụ na onye ọrịa nwere> 20 pasent TBSA na-ere ọkụ, na-agbọ agbọ, ma ọ bụ ga-achọ intubation endotracheal mberede mgbe ọ bịarutere ụlọ ọgwụ. Maka njikwa ọkụ zuru ezu, lee oké ọkụ na mmiri mmiri mmiri.

Na-agbanahụ hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\))) na carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) ọnyà gas¶

Igwe ikuku geothermal na-ahapụkwa uzuoku agwakọta ya na ** carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)), hydrogen sulfide (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)), na sulfur dioxide (\(\ederede{SO}_2\)). - ** Gịnị kpatara ntụpọ dị ala ji aghọ ụlọ gas na-egbu egbu: ** N'ọnọdụ okpomọkụ na nrụgide, $ ederede {CO}_2$ nwere nnukwu ike ndọda nke 1.52 na \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) nwere nnukwu ike ndọda nke 1.19 ma e jiri ya tụnyere ikuku nkịtị (1.00). N'ehihie ikuku na-ekuku, ọgba aghara na-agwakọta ma na-agbaze ikuku ndị a n'enweghị nsogbu. N'ụtụtụ ** dị jụụ, n'ụtụtụ oyi, n'oge ntụgharị ihu igwe, ma ọ bụ n'ime ịda mbà n'obi nke snow na-ebugharị, ọgba, ma ọ bụ ndagwurugwu, ikuku dị arọ na-emikpu wee mepụta ọdọ gas na-adịghị ahụ anya, nke na-egbu egbu 0.5 ruo 2 mita (1.6 ruo 6.5 feet) n'akụkụ ala. - ** Ọnyà Ọnyà Ọnyà nke Hydrogen Sulfide:** N'ebe dị nta (\(0.01\text{to }5\text{ppm}\)),\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) na-esisi ike dị ka àkwá rere ure. Agbanyeghị, na mkpokọta 100 ruo 150 ppm, \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) na-eme ka akwara ndị na-esi ísì ụtọ kpọnwụrụ akpọnwụ n'ime nkeji 2 ruo 15. Onye na-eme njem na-abanye n'akpa gas gbadoro anya na-eche na ikuku ekpochaala n'ihi na isi akwa rere ure na-apụ n'anya; nzọụkwụ abụọ ka e mesịrị, na ** 500 ruo 1,000 ppm , otu ume nke \(\text{H}_2\text{S}\) na-ejikọta mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase na ụbụrụ ụbụrụ, na-eme ka amaghị ihe ọ bụla ozugbo ("ụlọ mkpochapụ") na njide iku ume. - ** Iwu nnapụta: Ọ bụrụ na ị hụ onye na-eme njem, onye ọrụ, ma ọ bụ nnukwu anụ ụlọ dina n'amaghị ama n'ime oghere geothermal nke dara, snow moat, ma ọ bụ olulu mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ na-ekpo ọkụ, ** abanyela n'ime ịda mbà n'obi iji lelee pulse ha. n'ime iyi ikuku elu ọhụrụ; ma ọ bụghị, kpọọ ndị ọrụ mberede maka nnapụta nke onwe (SCBA). Gụọ anyị cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, na gas inhalation nke ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe ntuziaka enyemaka mbụ.

Ịlanarị iju mmiri gbawapụrụ n'okpuru mmiri (jokulhlaup)¶

Amalitere site na okwu Icelandic maka "ụli elu glacier," jokulhlaup bụ oke oke ide mmiri tọhapụrụ n'okpuru glacier ma ọ bụ okpu ice. Ọ bụ ezie na ụfọdụ jokulhlaups na-asọpụta ọdọ mmiri mmiri na-agba mmiri n'ime ụbọchị ole na ole, ihe ndị kasị dị ize ndụ na-eme na mkpuchi ọkụ na-agba ọkụ (dị ka Vatnajokull na Myrdalsjokull / Katla na Iceland, ** Ugwu Rainier ** na ** Redoubt / Spurr ** na United States, ma ọ bụ glaciated na Chile na Algeovolcanoe. mgbawa ugwu mgbawa ugwu mgbawa na-agbaze ọtụtụ nde cubic mita mmiri n'okpuru ọtụtụ narị mita nke ice.

1. Olee otú jokulhlaup si ewuli ma gbajie¶

Ka okpomọkụ geothermal na-agbaze n'okpuru okpu ice n'ime ọnwa ma ọ bụ awa, ọdọ mmiri dị n'okpuru mmiri na-agbakọta n'ime nkụda mmụọ ma ọ bụ ite ice. Mgbe omimi na nrụgide hydrostatic nke mmiri ahụ tọrọ atọ ruru ihe dịka pasent 90 nke ọkpụrụkpụ nke mmiri mmiri mmiri na-ekpuchi elu ** (n'ihi na ice nwere njupụta nke $ 0.917 gram kwa cubic centimita $ ma e jiri ya tụnyere mmiri mmiri $ 1.00 gram kwa cubic centimita $), ice mmiri mmiri na-ese n'elu elu, ma ọ bụ mmiri ọkụ na-agbaze site na mmiri ọkụ na-agbaze. Iyi nke mmiri na-akpụ akpụ, ntụ mgbawa ugwu, nkume nkume, na 1,000-ton blocks nke ice ice na-esi na glacier snout gbafere n'ala larịị dị larịị (sandur). N'oge mgbawa subglacial Gjallp nke 1996 na Iceland, Skeidararhlaup jokulhlaup ruru nchacha kacha elu nke ** 50,000 cubic mita kwa nkeji (1.76 cubic feet kwa nkeji)**, na-aghọ obere osimiri nke abụọ kachasị na ụwa ma na-ekpochapụ àkwà mmiri nchara dị ka osisi egwuregwu.

2. Iwu nlanarị ozugbo na ndagwurugwu glacial outwash na ọgba ice¶

1. ** ṅaa ntị na akara ịdọ aka ná ntị mbụ nke #1, isi mberede nke àkwá rere ure (\(\text{H}_2\text{S}\)) n'akụkụ osimiri glacial:** Ọdọ mmiri geothermal nke dị n'okpuru mmiri jupụtara na hydrogen sulfide gbazere. Awa ole na ole tupu nnukwu iju mmiri ebili mmiri na-esi na njedebe glacier, mmiri dị n'okpuru mmiri na-arụ ọrụ na-amalite ịbanye n'ime ọwa mmiri ahụ, na-ewepụta ísì ọjọọ ** sọlfọ ma ọ bụ isi akwa rere ure n'akụkụ akụkụ osimiri na àkwà mmiri. Ọ bụrụ na ị na-esi sọlfọ dị nso n'osimiri glacier ma ọ bụ mmiri glacial, si n'ala ndagwurugwu pụọ ozugbo.
2. ** Abanyela n'ọgba ice dị n'okpuru mmiri n'oge mmiri ozuzo na-ekpo ọkụ, mmiri na-agbaze, ma ọ bụ ihe omume seismic dị elu: ** Ndị njem nleta na-eleta ọgba ndị na-acha anụnụ anụnụ na ala nke glaciers nwere ike ọnyà n'ime nkeji ma ọ bụrụ na ọwa mmiri dị n'okpuru mmiri na-akwado ma ọ bụ daa n'elu ụlọ ice.
3. Ekwụsịla n'elu àkwà mmiri dị n'elu mbara ala glacial ka ikiri iju mmiri ahụ: Jokulhlaup adịghị eme ka mmiri dị ọcha; Ọ bụ slurry hyperconcentrated na-ebu ** 10-na-30-mita-obosara (33-na-100-ụkwụ-obosara) icebergs ** na-ejegharị na 15 ruo 30 kilomita kwa elekere (9 ruo 19 kilomita kwa elekere). Akpụrụ mmiri ice ndị a na-adaba n'osimiri àkwà mmiri ma gbakọta n'akụkụ àkwà mmiri ruo mgbe àkwà mmiri ahụ dum ga-apụ. Gbapụ kpam kpam na larịị ịsa ahụ dị larịị (sandur) n'akụkụ ugwu akwa siri ike tupu ị kwụsị.

Nọmba mberede mpaghara na ụkpụrụ ụlọ ọrụ¶

• United States: Kpọọ 911 ozugbo (ma ọ bụ gbadaa National Park Service Law Enforcement Ranger ma ọ bụrụ na egbochiri mkpuchi cellular site na mgbidi ọwa mmiri; mee ka onye ozi satịlaịtị SOS rụọ ọrụ ma ọ bụrụ na azụ azụ). Nyochaa ** USGS Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO), ** Cascade Volcano Observatory (CVO), na Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) (volcanoes.usgs.gov) maka ọkwa hydrothermal na glaciovolcanic.
• Iceland: Kpọọ 112 maka nnapụta ihe mberede yana Iceland Association for Search and Rescue (ICE-SAR / Landsbjorg). Nyochaa ụlọ ọrụ ** Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO / Vedurstofa Islands, vedur.is*** na ** Ngalaba nchekwa obodo na njikwa ihe mberede (Almannavarnir / safetravel.is***, nke na-akwalite ịdọ aka ná ntị mwepu nke ekwentị mkpanaaka na ekwentị ọ bụla n'ime jokulhlaup ma ọ bụ mpaghara ihe egwu mgbawa ugwu (dịka Myrdalssandur, Skeidararsandur, ma ọ bụ Grindavik).
• ** New Zealand: *** Kpọọ ** 111 ** maka ndị uwe ojii, ọkụ na ihe mberede NZ, yana ụgbọ ihe mberede. Nyochaa GeoNet (geonet.org.nz* na ** Ngalaba Nchekwa (DOC)** maka ọkwa ọkwa mgbawa ugwu na ihe egwu hydrothermal n'ofe mpaghara ugwu ugwu Taupo, Rotorua, Tongariro, na Ruapehu (ebe injinia ERLAWS acoustic lahar / outburst ịdọ aka ná ntị usoro na-akpalite ọnụ ụzọ mgbochi akpaka na sirens).
• ** European Union, Italy, na Kamchatka / Asia-Pacific: ** Kpọọ ** 112 ** gafee Europe. Na Italy (Campi Flegrei / Solfatara phreatic na \(\text{CO}_2\) fumarole ubi), soro Protezione Civile na INGV mpaghara mwepu. Na Japan (ebe mgbawa mgbawa ugwu mgbawa na \(\ ederede {H}_2\text{S}\) gas akpa n'Ugwu Ontake, Kusatsu-Shirane, na Hakone Owakudani bụ nnukwu ihe egwu), kpọọ 119 ma soro ** Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)** ịdọ aka ná ntị mgbawa ugwu.

Ajụjụ a na-ajụkarị¶

Mgbawa hydrothermal na Yellowstone ma ọ bụ Rotorua ọ pụtara na mgbawa ugwu mgbawa na-amalite?¶

Ee e. Dị ka United States Geological Survey (USGS) na GNS Science New Zealand si kwuo, mgbawa mmiri ọkụ bụ ihe na-emighị emi n'elu mmiri mmiri na-eme n'elu 10 ruo 200 mita (33 ruo 650 ụkwụ) nke jikọrọ ọnụ ebe mmiri mmiri dị n'ime ala na-agbanye n'ime uzuoku. Ha anaghị agụnye magma na-arị elu, ọ bụghịkwa ihe ga-ebute mgbawa mgbawa ugwu magmatic; N'ezie, obere mgbawa hydrothermal na-eme n'otu ebe na Yellowstone fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ afọ ọ bụla, na nnukwu craters na-agbapụ kwa iri afọ ole na ole ruo narị afọ ka ịnweta silica na-ekpuchi ọwa geyser n'okpuru ala.

Kedu ihe kpatara na ị gaghị akwapụ uwe mwụgharị sịntetik gbazere ma ọ bụrụ na mmadụ daa n'ime mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ?¶

Mgbe onye njem na-eyi uwe nylon, polyester, ma ọ bụ polypropylene dabara na mmiri geothermal 93-degree-Celsius (200-Fahrenheit), okpomọkụ na-esi na ya na-ebute mwepu epidermal n'uju ozugbo ka ọ na-eme ka akwa sịntetịt dị nro n'ime dermis gbawara agbawa. Ịdọkasị uwe ogologo ọkpa ma ọ bụ sọks akwadoro n'okporo ụzọ ụgbọ mmiri na-adọkasị mpempe akwụkwọ nke dermis dị ndụ, na-ebute oke ọbara ọgbụgba, na-ekpughere irighiri akwara n'ikuku, na-abawanye nke ukwuu ọrịa na mfu mmiri. Kama nke ahụ, mee ka ọkụ ahụ dị jụụ ozugbo site na uwe ahụ na mmiri oyi dị ọcha, bepụ naanị ákwà na-adịghị mma n'akụkụ ya, ma hapụ ndị dọkịta na-awa n'etiti ọkụ ka ha kpochapụ ihe ndị ahụ agbakwunyere n'okpuru ọgwụ na-adịghị mma.

Kedu ka mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ na-esi esi esikwa ike bụrụ acidic ma ọ bụ alkaline siri ike?¶

Mmiri geothermal na-adaba na klas abụọ dị iche iche nke na-ebibi anụ ahụ mmadụ ngwa ngwa karịa mmiri esi mmiri dị ọcha. Isi iyi acid-sulfate (nke a na-ahụkarị na ite apịtị na ugwu fumarole nwere $p\text{H} 1.2\text{to} }3.0$) na-etolite mgbe ikuku hydrogen sulfide na-agbaze n'ime mmiri ikuku oxygenated na-emighị emi ma nje bacteria * Sulfolobus* na-etinye ya n'ime sulfuric acid siri ike, na-agbakwunye kemịkalụ acid siri ike na-ere ọkụ. Mmiri alkaline-chloride (ọtụtụ geysers na-acha anụnụ anụnụ nwere $p\text{H} 8.5\text{ka} }9.5$) bara ụba na silica gbazere na sodium carbonate; nnukwu alkalinity saponifies (na-agbaze) abụba abụba na akpụkpọ ahụ mmadụ, na-ekwe ka okpomọkụ dị ọkụ banye n'ime anụ ahụ dị n'okpuru anụ ahụ.

Enwere m ike ịlanarị ma ọ bụrụ na m ga-esi n'ime obere eriri afọ zọọ ruo n'ikpere m?¶

Ee, mmerụ ahụ dị n'ụkwụ dị ala na-adị ndụ mgbe niile ma ọ bụrụ na ị daa n'ala ozugbo iji gbasaa ibu gị, laghachi azụ n'ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri, jiri mmiri oyi dị ọcha sụọ ụkwụ ụkwụ maka nkeji 15 ruo 20, wee buru ya gaa n'ebe a na-ere ọkụ. Ọnwụ n'ihe mberede mmiri nke geothermal na-ejikọta ya na pasent nke mkpokọta ahụ dị n'elu mpaghara (TBSA) gbara ọkụ: ihe nhụsianya nke nkwonkwo ụkwụ na ikpere na-emetụta pasent 7 ruo 15 TBSA, ebe isi n'isi n'ime mmiri na-esi esi n'akụkụ dị elu na-akpata pasent 80 ruo 100 TBSA na-egbu ọkụ nke ogo atọ.

Kedu ihe ize ndụ nke amoeba na-eri ụbụrụ n'ime mmiri ọkụ ọkụ eke?¶

Mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ na-esi n'etiti 25 na 46 degrees Celsius (77 na 115 degrees Fahrenheit) ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri * Naegleria fowleri *, amoeba na-ebi ndụ na-ekpo ọkụ nke na-ebi na sedimenti ala. Ịṅụ mmiri na-adịghị ebute ọrịa, na ịbanye n'olu ala adịghị mma; Ihe egwu a na-eme mgbe a na-amanye mmiri ọkụ na-ekpo ọkụ n'imi mgbe ị na-egwu mmiri, na-akụ isi gị, ma ọ bụ na-efesa. Amoeba na-agafe ọwa irighiri akwara na-esi ísì n'ime ụbụrụ, na-ebute Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM), nke nwere ọnụ ọgụgụ ọnwụ karịrị pasent 97. Debe isi gị mgbe niile n'elu mmiri ma ọ bụ yichie imi imi n'ime isi iyi na-ekpo ọkụ. Inweta usoro enyemaka mbụ site na Red Cross, St John Ambulance, ma ọ bụ onye na-enye mpaghara na-akụzi ọkụ na-azọpụta ndụ na nlekọta mberede gburugburu ebe obibi.

Ntuziaka emetụtara¶

• Ọdọ mmiri glacial gbawara idei mmiri na mwepu ọdịda mmiri
• Mgbawa nke Limnic na igwe ojii nke carbon dioxide na-agbọpụta ọkụ
• Ọkụ siri ike na mwepu kemịkalụ enyemaka mbụ
• Cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, na gas inhalation mbụ enyemaka

Isi mmalite na nduzi ọchịchị¶

• United States Geological Survey (USGS) na Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO): Mgbawa mmiri ọkụ na Yellowstone National Park: Mechanics of Phreatic Flash-to-Steam Decompression, Crater Ballistics, and Geothermal Gas Hazards.
• ** Ọrụ Ntụrụndụ Mba United States (NPS): *** * Usoro nchekwa nchekwa nke Yellowstone Thermal Basin, Mgbochi Mgbochi Ọrịa Sinter Crust, na Enyemaka Mbụ Geothermal Backcountry*.
• ** Ọfịs meteorological Icelandic (IMO / Vedurstofa Islands) na Almannavarnir (Nchekwa Obodo Iceland):** * Jokulhlaup (Iju Mmiri Iju Mmiri) Sistemụ ịdọ aka ná ntị mbụ, Katla na Grímsvötn Nchụpụ, na Nchekwa Mpaghara Geothermal *.
• ** GNS Sayensị New Zealand (Te Pu Ao) na Ngalaba Nchekwa (DOC):** * Mpaghara Volcanic Taupo na Rotorua Hydrothermal Assessments na Mt. Ruapehu Crater Lake Mt.
• ** American Burn Association (ABA) na Wilderness Medical Society (WMS):*** Nlekọta ụlọ ọgwụ nke siri ike na-ekpo ọkụ na kemịkalụ ọkụ na gburugburu ebe dị anya*.