Winter outdoor emergencies: cold water, getting lost in snow, whiteouts, and staying warm until rescue¶

Winter outdoors is beautiful and unforgiving. A fall through lake ice, a sudden whiteout on a ridge, a sledding crash on an icy slope or a wrong turn at dusk can become life threatening within an hour, because cold takes away strength, judgment and heat all at once. Most people who survive winter emergencies do three things well: they stop and think before they act, they protect themselves from cold and wind, and they make it easy for rescuers to find them.

This guide covers cold water immersion, getting lost in snow, hiking in a whiteout, sledding and skiing accidents, building a shelter and signaling, staying warm until rescue arrives, and the preparation that makes all of this easier. It builds on wilderness hypothermia and cold, izotz bidez erortzen eta lost while hiking or camping.

Egin hau orain¶

1. Stop moving if you are lost, disoriented or in a whiteout. Do not keep walking in the hope of finding the way. Sit on your pack or an insulating layer, out of the wind.
2. Call your local emergency number (911 in the United States and Canada, 112 across the European Union, 999 in the United Kingdom) if you have a signal, or send a message with a satellite messenger or personal locator beacon. Text messages sometimes go through when voice calls do not. See larrialdi zenbakiak beste herrialde batzuetarako.
3. Put on every dry layer you have, including a hat, gloves and a windproof shell. Get out of the wind and off the snow, and insulate yourself from the ground.
4. If you have fallen into cold water, follow the steps in the cold water section below: control your breathing, keep your head above the surface, and get out and warm as fast as you can.
5. Eat and drink something warm and sweet if you have it. Your body burns food to make heat.
6. Make yourself easy to find: stay in one place, use a whistle, put bright items in the open, and keep your phone warm and switched to low power mode.

Cold water immersion¶

Cold water kills in stages, and the first stage is not hypothermia. The sudden shock of cold water causes an involuntary gasp and fast breathing, which can lead to drowning in the first minute. The widely taught "1-10-1" rule from Canadian water safety groups gives a good picture of how events unfold in water around 10 degrees Celsius (50 degrees Fahrenheit) or colder.

Times vary with water temperature, clothing, body size and fitness, so treat them as a guide and not a guarantee. People have survived much longer in cold water, and others have died in less. A lifejacket greatly improves your chances, because it keeps you afloat when your muscles stop working.

If you fall through ice¶

1. Do not panic. Expect the gasp reflex, and control your breathing by staying calm for the first minute.
2. Turn toward the direction you came from, since that ice held you before.
3. Place your forearms on the unbroken ice and kick your legs to bring your body flat to the surface.
4. Kick as if swimming, and drag yourself out onto the ice with your arms, then roll away from the hole. Do not stand up until you are well away from the broken area.
5. Crawl or roll back to shore along the path you came from.
6. Get to shelter and start warming up, even if you feel fine, because cold continues to drain your body heat.

For ice safety, rescue techniques and ice thickness guidance, read izotz bidez erortzen. Ice thickness is never certain. Many agencies advise at least 10 centimeters (4 inches) of clear, hard ice for walking, but rivers, springs, currents and snow cover can make ice weak in places, so check with local authorities and avoid ice you do not know.

If you cannot get out¶

Stay still in the HELP position (Heat Escape Lessening Posture) if you have a lifejacket: hold your knees to your chest and your arms tight against your sides. This keeps heat in the core. If you are with others, huddle together. Do not swim long distances, because swimming speeds heat loss. Swim only if a boat, shore or a floating object is close.

Rescuing someone else¶

Do not run onto the ice. Call your local emergency number first. Then, if it is safe, reach with a long object such as a ladder, branch or rope from solid ground, or throw a rope, ring buoy or something that floats. Keep yourself low and spread out on the ice if you must go on it, with something to spread your weight. Many rescuers become victims, so do not put yourself at risk.

After you are out of the water¶

1. Get out of the wind and into shelter, a car, a building or a tent.
2. Remove wet clothing, which takes heat from your body, and replace it with dry layers. If you have no dry clothes, wring out wet items and wrap yourself in a blanket, space blanket or sleeping bag.
3. Wrap the body, head and neck, and insulate from the ground.
4. Give warm, sweet drinks if the person is awake and can swallow. Avoid alcohol and caffeine.
5. Handle the person gently. Rough movement can trigger heart rhythm problems in a very cold person.
6. Call your local emergency number for anyone who has been immersed, even if they seem fine. Water in the lungs and a falling temperature can show up later.

For full steps, see hipotermia eta izozteak. If the person is unresponsive and not breathing normally, start CPR and continue until help arrives. Cold victims can recover after a long time without a pulse, so do not stop early. See CPR.

Snowmobiles, ATVs and vehicles on ice¶

Vehicles break through ice far more easily than people. If you ride or drive on frozen lakes, check ice thickness and conditions locally, wear a flotation suit, carry ice picks around your neck, and avoid riding at night. For what to do after a breakthrough, see snowmobile or ATV broken through lake ice. For boats and open water in winter, read boating capsizing and cold water survival.

Getting lost in snow¶

Snow hides trails, flattens landmarks and covers footprints, and short winter days leave little time to correct a mistake. Cold and tiredness also reduce clear thinking. The aim is to avoid making things worse.

Use the STOP method¶

• Stop. Do not take another step. Sit down, drink, eat and breathe.
• Think. Where did you last know your position? How long ago? How much daylight, food, water and clothing do you have? Who knows your plan?
• Observe. Look at the weather, terrain, wind and your battery. Check your map, GPS and phone. Note any shelter nearby.
• Plan. Decide whether to stay or go, and what to do first. If in doubt, stay put.

Stay or go¶

Most search and rescue teams advise lost people to stay in one place unless they are in danger or know exactly how to reach safety. A stationary person is easier to find and uses less energy. Move only if:

• You know with certainty where the nearest safe place is, and you can reach it in good time and safe conditions.
• Your current spot is unsafe, for example in an avalanche path, under a cornice, on thin ice or in a flood zone.
• You have to move a short distance to reach shelter from wind or to find an open area for signaling.

If you move, mark your route with sticks, rocks or brightly colored items so you can return, and leave a note if you are leaving a vehicle. Follow your own tracks back when you can see them. Do not follow a stream or a ridge unless you know where it leads, and avoid steep slopes and cornices in poor visibility.

If you have phone coverage¶

Call or text your local emergency number, give your location in detail, and say that you are lost in snow. Share your coordinates if your phone can show them, and keep the phone close to your body so it stays warm, because batteries die fast in cold. Send brief messages instead of making long calls. Turn the screen brightness down, close other apps and use airplane mode between messages if you want to save power. In some countries you can send an emergency text. If you carry a personal locator beacon or satellite messenger, activate it and keep it in the open with a clear view of the sky.

Whiteout and poor visibility¶

A whiteout occurs when blowing or falling snow and flat light remove depth and contrast. People lose their sense of up and down, and they walk in circles or off a drop.

Zer egin¶

1. Stop at once if you cannot see your feet, the horizon or the person ahead. Do not move toward a place you cannot see.
2. Stay together. Rope up or stay within touch of the group if conditions are severe, and count heads often.
3. Put on layers and a face covering. Take shelter from the wind behind a rock, a tree or a trench in the snow.
4. Use your map, compass and GPS to check where you are, and do not trust your sense of direction in a whiteout. People walk in curves without realizing it.
5. If you must move, choose a safe line, move slowly, and probe the ground ahead with a pole or ski pole. Avoid slopes, edges and open water.
6. Follow your tracks back if they are still visible and the route is safe, or wait for a break in the weather.
7. Do not leave the group or send one person ahead to scout alone.

For driving in blizzards and blowing snow, read ground blizzard, blowing snow whiteout and shelter rope tether lines. If you are in a car, stay with the vehicle, and see auto matxura.

Snow blindness¶

Bright snow can burn the eyes within hours, even on cloudy days. Wear sunglasses or goggles with full UV protection. If vision blurs and eyes feel gritty, cover them with a damp cloth and rest in the dark. See snow blindness.

Sledding and skiing accidents¶

Sledding, skiing and snowboarding cause thousands of injuries every winter, most from falls and collisions. Head injuries and spinal injuries are the most serious. Children and beginners are at higher risk, and sledding on roads, near trees or on icy slopes is especially dangerous.

Preventing injuries¶

• Wear a helmet designed for snow sports when you ski, snowboard or sled. Bicycle helmets do not cover the same impacts.
• Sit or lie feet first on sleds, and avoid going down headfirst.
• Choose slopes with a clear, gentle run out and no trees, rocks, fences, roads, water, or parked cars.
• Avoid icy or crowded hills and do not sled at night without light.
• Keep a safe distance from others and look before you start.
• Do not tow sleds behind vehicles.
• Match the activity to your skill, and take lessons.
• Check conditions and any avalanche warnings in the mountains. If you plan to leave marked trails, carry the right training and gear, and travel with trained companions.

After a crash¶

1. Stop and check the scene. Make sure that you and the injured person are out of the path of others, and mark the spot by crossing skis or sleds uphill of the person.
2. Call for help from ski patrol or your local emergency number. Give the exact location.
3. Do not move anyone with possible head, neck, or back injury. Keep the person still and warm, and support the head in the position found. See spinal injuries.
4. Check breathing and begin CPR if the person is unresponsive and not breathing normally.
5. Control bleeding with firm pressure, and treat for shock by keeping the person warm and lying down.
6. Insulate the person from the snow with a pack, a coat or a sleeping pad, and cover their head and neck.
7. Watch the person for signs of head injury, such as confusion, vomiting, drowsiness or worsening headache. See buruko lesioak.
8. Treat broken bones by splinting in the position found when you must wait a long time. See hautsitako hezurrak eta bihurrituak.

For more on slope injuries and what to do, see skiing, snowboarding and slope accidents. For the particular danger of falling headfirst into snow around trees, read tree well immersion and deep snow suffocation.

Avalanche terrain¶

Avalanches kill people who travel in steep backcountry terrain without training. If you leave controlled areas, check the local avalanche forecast, take a course, and carry a transceiver, probe and shovel, and know how to use them. If a companion is buried, switch to search mode and begin the search at once, since survival chances drop rapidly in the first 15 minutes. This guide does not replace avalanche training.

Shelter and staying warm until rescue¶

When rescue will not come for hours, shelter becomes your first priority. It stops wind, keeps you dry and reduces heat loss. Do this before you are exhausted, and before dark.

Choose a location¶

• Pick a spot out of the wind, away from avalanche slopes, cornices, cliffs, flood zones, and dead or heavy laden trees.
• Look for natural windbreaks such as a large rock, dense evergreen trees, a hollow or a drift. Avoid tree wells, which are dangerous pits around trunks.
• Stay visible if you want to be found, for example at the edge of an open area rather than deep in the woods.

Build a quick shelter¶

1. Insulate from the ground first. Snow and cold ground take heat faster than air. Sit or lie on your pack, foam pad, spare clothes, a layer of evergreen branches or any dry material.
2. Make a windbreak. Use your tent, a tarp, a space blanket or a wall of snow blocks. Even a simple wall helps.
3. Dig a snow trench. In deep snow, dig a trench slightly longer than your body, cover it with a tarp or branches, and pile snow on top. Leave a vent.
4. Build a snow cave only if you have training. It takes hours and wet clothing, and you must keep a ventilation hole open and the entrance below the sleeping platform. Do not seal yourself in.
5. Use a bivouac sack or emergency blanket. A bivy bag keeps wind and moisture out. A space blanket reflects some heat but works best inside a bag or under a jacket.
6. Share heat. Sit close with others, back to back or side by side, with the smallest person in the middle.

Stay warm¶

• Wear layers: a wicking base, an insulating mid layer and a windproof, waterproof shell. Wool and synthetic fabrics stay warm when damp, while cotton does not.
• Keep your head, neck, hands and feet covered. Put on dry socks and keep your boots loose so circulation is not blocked.
• Avoid sweating. Take off a layer before you start working hard, and put it back when you stop.
• Eat small snacks often, especially fats and sugars. Drink warm liquids when possible, and drink water even if you are not thirsty.
• Do not eat snow when you are cold. It lowers body temperature. Melt it first in a container using a stove, or under your clothing in a sealed bottle if you have no stove.
• Avoid alcohol and tobacco. Alcohol widens blood vessels and speeds heat loss.
• Move your arms and legs and tense your muscles in short bursts to generate heat. Do not exercise to exhaustion.
• Keep dry. Brush off snow, and dry gloves or socks near your body.
• Use heat packs inside clothing near the core, not directly against skin.

Sua¶

If you have a lighter, matches and dry material, a fire gives warmth, a signal and a morale boost. Build it on a platform of green logs or rocks over snow, keep it small and sheltered, and keep it away from your shelter and tree branches that drop snow. Never burn a fire inside an enclosed snow cave without ventilation, and never use a stove inside a closed tent. See karbono monoxidoa.

Signaling for rescue¶

Rule of three is the international distress pattern: three whistle blasts, three shouts, three fires or three flashes. Use it, then listen for an answer, which may be two signals.

Recognizing cold injuries¶

Egiaztatu zure burua eta zure lagunak maiz. Hotzak judizioa kaltetzen du, beraz, logura edo nahasitako pertsona batek arazoak dituenik ez jakitea.

Ikusi hipotermia eta izozteak eta wilderness hypothermia and cold for treatment steps. Do not rub frostbitten skin, do not use direct heat, and do not let a frostbitten foot thaw if you must walk on it and risk refreezing.

Decision flow when something goes wrong outdoors¶

flowchart TD
    A["Winter emergency outdoors"] --> B{"In water or on broken ice?"}
    B -->|"Bai"| C["Control breathing, float, kick to the ice edge<br/>and get out then warm up"]
    B -->|"Ez"| D{"Injured or unable to walk?"}
    D -->|"Bai"| E["Call for help, insulate the person<br/>and keep them still"]
    D -->|"Ez"| F{"Lost or in a whiteout?"}
    F -->|"Bai"| G["Stop, think, observe and plan<br/>stay put unless unsafe"]
    F -->|"Ez"| H["Check weather and daylight<br/>and head back early"]
    C --> I["Shelter, dry layers, warm drinks"]
    E --> I
    G --> I
    I --> J["Signal with a whistle, light and bright gear"]
    J --> K["Aurreztu energia eta beroa<br/>eta itxaron erreskatea"]

Preparing before you go¶

The best winter emergency is the one that never happens. Preparation costs little and makes everything above easier.

Plan and tell someone¶

• Check the weather forecast, avalanche bulletin, ice reports and daylight hours. Turn back when conditions change.
• Leave a trip plan with someone reliable: route, group size, vehicle description, expected return time and what to do if you are late.
• Travel with others where possible, and keep the group together.
• Choose routes that match the least experienced person's ability.
• Start early, set a turn around time and keep to it.

Carry the essentials¶

• Map, compass and a charged GPS or phone with offline maps. See offline smartphone survival if you want a phone based option.
• Extra insulating layers, a hat, gloves, and a waterproof shell
• Emergency shelter, such as a bivy sack or large heavy duty bag, and a foam pad
• Headlamp with spare batteries
• Whistle, mirror and a personal locator beacon or satellite messenger for remote areas
• Food and a hot drink in an insulated bottle, with more than you expect to need
• Fire starters, a lighter and waterproof matches
• First aid kit with a space blanket and heat packs. See first aid kit.
• Knife or multitool, and repair items
• Sun protection and goggles
• Ice picks or rescue spikes if you travel on frozen water

Keep spare batteries and your phone inside a warm pocket. Lithium batteries last longer in cold than alkaline cells. Store essentials in a pack that you carry, and not in the car.

Match gear to the trip¶

Ibilgailuen bidaiarako, eduki neguko kit bat autoan. Ikusi ibilgailuen neguko elikadura bizirauteko kit eta autoko larrialdietarako kit. For going out on foot, a day pack with the items above takes only a few minutes to prepare.

Checklist before a winter outing¶

• I checked weather, ice and avalanche information.
• Someone has my plan and return time.
• Mapa, iparrorratza eta kargatutako telefono bat eramaten ditut, eta energia banku bat ere bai.
• Geruza gehigarriak, txanoa, eskularruak eta maskor bat ditut, baita larrialdietarako aterpe bat ere.
• Janaria, edari beroa, txistua eta farola ditut.
• Pizgailu bat eta su piztekoak ditut.
• Elurretako kiroletarako kaskoa janzten dut, eta izotz-pikatzaileak izotza zeharkatuko badut.
• Badakit hipotermia eta izozteak nola tratatzen.

Maiz egiten diren galderak¶

Zer egin behar dut lehenik izoztutako uretara erortzen banaiz?¶

Mantendu lasai eta kontrolatu arnasketa lehenengo minutuz, shock hotzak itotzea eragin dezakeen hatsa eragiten baitu. Mantendu burua uraren gainetik, biratu etorri zaren tokirantz, jarri besoak izotzaren gainean eta eman ostikada gainazalean lautik tiratzeko, eta gero urrundu zulotik. Berotu azkar eta deitu zure tokiko larrialdi-zenbakira ondo sentitzen bazara ere.

Elurretan galtzen banaiz, geldi egon behar al dut edo oinez jarraitu?¶

Egon zaitez kasu gehienetan, leku batean geratzen den pertsona errazago aurkitzen baita eta energia eta bero gutxiago galtzen baitu. Mugitu segurtasuna non dagoen ziur badakizu, zure posizioa arriskutsua den edo haizetik ateratzeko. Egin aterpe bat, isolatu lurretik eta seinale txistu batekin, elementu argitsuekin eta telefonoarekin.

Nola egon epela salbatzaileak iritsi arte?¶

Jarri geruza lehorrak, estali burua, eskuak eta oinak, isolatu elurretik eta atera haizetik. Jan pintxo txikiak maiz eta edan likido epelak, saihestu izerdia eta alkohola, eta elkartu besteekin ahal baduzu. Jarrai besoak eta hankak mugitzen leherketa laburretan, eta mantendu telefonoa epela izan dezan.

Zeintzuk dira lera edo eskian lesio larri baten abisua?¶

Konorte galera, nahasmena, oka, buruko min larria, lepoko edo bizkarreko mina, sorbaldura edo ahultasuna edo gorputz-adarra tolestuta dagoen edozein larritzat tratatu. Mantendu pertsona geldi eta bero eta deitu eski-patruila edo tokiko larrialdi-zenbakira. Ez mugitu bizkarrezurreko lesio posible bat duen norbait berehalako arriskuan egon ezean.

Iturriak egiaztatu¶

Gida hau National Weather Service (Estatu Batuak) neguko eguraldiaren eta haize hotzaren orriekin, Gaixotasunen Kontrolerako eta Prebentziorako Zentroekin (Estatu Batuak) hipotermiari eta izozteei buruzko gidalerroekin, Parke Nazionaleko Zerbitzuarekin (Estatu Batuak) neguko segurtasun-aholkuekin, Amerikako Gurutze Gorriaren neguko segurtasun eta lehen sorospenen orriekin, Kanadako Gurutze Gorria eta Kanadako Lifesaving Society of the Cold Water Bovice, Institution of the Cold Water Bovice, The National Shock Institution. Osasun Zerbitzuko (Erresuma Batua) hipotermia orria, Met Office (Erresuma Batua) neguko eguraldiaren aholkuak, Mountain Rescue England eta Galesko ibiltari galduei eta noraezean daudenei buruzko orientabideak eta Health Canada neguko segurtasun orriak. Agentziek denbora edo distantziak desberdinak direnean, zenbat eta zuhurragoak diren zifrak erabiltzen dira.

Ikasi lehen laguntzak¶

Lehen sorospen ikastaro praktikoak hotzean benetako aldea eragiten duten praktikak ematen dizkizu, hatzak moteltzen direnean eta pentsamendua motela denean. Gurutze Gorriak, San Joan Anbulantziak eta tokiko hornitzaileek basamortuko lehen laguntzak, CPR eta hipotermia zaintzen irakasten dituzte. Hartu ikastaro bat negua baino lehen eta ekarri lagun bat.

Erlazionatutako gidak¶

• Basamortuko hipotermia eta hotza
• Izotz bidez erortzea
• Ibilaldietan edo kanpinetan galduta
• Hipotermia eta izozteak
• Eskia, snowboarda eta aldapako istripuak